Handbook  of  Pipe 

COMPRISING  tables,  charts  and  other  useful 
information  relating  to  the  subject  of  the  car- 
rying of  fluids  and  gases  by  pipe;  pipe  instal- 
lation and  test  data.  More  particularly  that  having 
to  do  with  large  diameter  steel  pipe  together  with  the 
story  of  “LOCK-BAR”  and  Riveted  Steel  pipe  as 
manufactured  by — 


The  East  Jersey  Pipe  Company 

New  York,  N.  Y. 


1920 


THE  EAST  JERSEY  PIPE  COMPANY 

New  York,  N.  Y. 


THE  EAST  JERSEY  PIPE  COMPANY 


General  Offices 
50  CHURCH  STREET, 
New  York,  N.  Y. 


Branch  Offices 
UNION  ARCADE  BUILDING, 
Pittsburgh,  Penna. 


Works 

PATERSON,  N.  J. 


Associated  with 

T.  A.  Gillespie  Company 

Engineers  and  Contractors 

50  CHURCH  ST.,  UNION  ARCADE  BLDG., 

New  York,  N.  Y.  Pittsburgh,  Penna. 


CONTENTS 


Preface . 11 

Materials  Specification 13 

Class,  13;  Process,  13;  Chemical  and  Physical 
Properties,  13;  Analyses,  13;  Elongation,  13;  Bend 
Tests,  13;  Tests,  15;  variations,  15;  Inspection,  15. 

Fabricating 17 

Planing  and  up-setting,  17;  Truing,  Punching  and 
Beveling,  17;  Crimping  and  rolling,  19;  Assembling, 

19;  Testing,  19;  Coating,  21. 

Weights. ......  .* 25 

Notes,  25;  Manufacturers’  Standard  Practice,  26, 

27;  Double  Lock-Bar  Pipe,  25;  Double  Riveted 
Steel  Pipe,  31. 

Joints 36 

Taper,  36;  Flange,  37;  Butt  Strap,  37;  High  Pres- 
sure  Flexible,  38;  Expansion,  39;  Submarine,  40; 

Flexible  Submarine,  41. 

Fittings 42 

Manholes,  42;  Straight  Saddles,  43;  Blow-offs,  44; 

Socket  Saddles,  45;  Y-s  and  Tees,  46;  Riveted  Spi- 
rals, 47 ; Reducers,  48. 

Test  Heads 49 

Working  Pressures 50 

Lock-Bar  Pipe,  50,  52;  Riveted  Pipe,  51,  53. 

Thickness  of  Pipe 54,  55 

Strength  of  Riveted  Joints 56  to  61 

Rivets 62 

In  Circular  Seams,  62;  Wearing  and  Bearing  Valve, 

63,  64. 


Pipe  Data 65 

Temperature  Stresses,  65;  Anchorages,  65;  Bends, 

68;  Superiority  of  Lock-Bar  Pipe,  68;  Strength,  68; 

Physical  Tests,  70,  71;  Carrying  Capacity,  73. 

Corrosion 74  to  78 

Electrolysis 79  to  81 

Insulating  Wrappings 82,  83 

Coating  Qualities 84 

Bibliography 85 

Cost  of  Pipe 86 

Failures  of  Pipe  Lines 87  to  94 

Testimony 96  to  113 

Hydraulics . 116  to  140 

Weir  Measurements 141  to  151 

Water  Power 152  to  158 

Water  Supply 159  to  167 

Testing  Lines 168 

Installations  of  Pipe  Lines 169  to  172 

Distribution  of  Water 174  to  177 

Water  Consumption 178  to  184 

Useful  Data  and  Formulae 185  to  211 


10 


PREFACE 


THE  increased  demand  for  additional  water,  gas 
and  oil  pipe  lines  throughout  the  country,  to- 
gether with  the  apparent  need  for  an  engineer- 
ing exposition  of  the  subject  of  steel  pipe,  which 
will  be  useful  to  Engineers,  has  caused  the 
Company  to  depart  from  its  usual  practice  of 
merely  cataloging  briefly  the  merits  of  the  prod- 
ucts it  manufactures  and  to  issue  in  convenient 
form,  for  the  man  in  the  field  as  well  as  the  man  in 
the  office,  this  “Handbook  of  Pipe.” 

Certain  subjects  closely  related  to  the  use  of  pipe 
have  been  incorporated  herein,  and  also  such  general 
information  and  engineering  data  as  is  germane  to 
the  subject.  In  the  compilation  of  the  engineering 
data,  the  work  of  only  competent  authorities  has 
been  resorted  to  and  wherever  use  has  been  made 
of  such  material,  due  credit  has  been  given. 

It  is  hoped  that  the  “Handbook”  may  be  of  as 
much  service  to  those  receiving  it,  as  the  measure  of 
pleasure  which  the  Company  derives  in  presenting  it, 
with  its  compliments. 

THE  EAST  JERSEY  PIPE  COMPANY 


11 


12 


Materials — Specifications 


FROM  RAW  MATERIAL  TO  FINISHED  PIPE 

While  to  many  users,  the  construction  and  manufacture  of  steel  pipe 
is  perhaps  no  secret,  yet  there  are  many  novel  processes  involved  in  the 
manufacture  of  “LOCK-BAR”  steel  pipe  which  are  of  peculiar  interest  and 
are  more  or  less  unknown. 

It  is  for  this  reason  that  a brief,  non-technical  description  is  given 
herewith. 


Material 

Covered 

Process 


1.  This  Specification  covers  three  classes  of  material,  namely: 
plates,  lock-bars  and  rivet  steel. 

2.  The  steel  shall  be  made  by  the  open-hearth  process. 


Discard  3.  A sufficient  discard  shall  be  made  from  each  ingot  to  insure 

sound  material. 

Chemical  4.  (a)  The  steel  shall  conform  to  the  following  requirements  as  to 

and  Physical  c^emicai  an<4  physical  properties: 

Properties  Properties  Considered  Plates  Lock-Bars  Rivet  Steel 

Phosphorus 04  .04  .04 

Sulphur .05  .05  045 

Yield  Point,  Min.  lb.  per  sq.  in 0.5  T.S.  0.5  T.S.  0.5  T.S. 

Tensile  Strength,  Min.  lb.  per  sq.  in  . 55/65000  40/50000  46/56000 

Elongation 1,500,000  1,500,000  1,500,000 


* See  Section  7. 


T.S.  T.S.  T.S. 

but  need  not  exceed  30  % 


(b)  The  yield  point  shall  be  determined  by  the  drop  of  the 
beam  of  the  testing  machine. 


Ladle 

Analyses 


Check 

Analyses 


Modifica- 
tions in 
Elongation 


Bend  Tests 


5.  An  analysis  of  each  melt  of  steel  shall  be  made  by  the  manu- 
facturer to  determine  the  percentages  of  carbon,  manganese,  phos- 
phorus and  sulphur.  This  analysis  shall  be  made  from  a test  ingot 
taken  during  the  pouring  of  the  melt.  The  chemical  composition  thus 
determined  shall  conform  to  the  requirements  specified  in  Section  4 
(a)  and  shall  be  reported  to  the  purchaser  or  his  representative  if 
requested. 

6.  Analyses  may  be  made  by  the  purchaser  from  finished  material 
representing  each  melt.  The  phosphorus  and  sulphur  content  thus 
determined  shall  not  exceed  that  specified  in  Section  4 (a)  by  more  than 
25%. 

7.  (a)  For  plates  over  %"  in  thickness,  a deduction  of  1 from  the 
percentage  of  elongation  specified  in  Section  4 (a)  shall  be  made  for 
each  increase  of  Ys"  in  thickness  above  . 

(b)  For  plates  under  fa"  in  thickness,  a deduction  of  2.5  from 
the  percentage  of  elongation  specified  in  Section  4 (a)  shall  be  made  for 
each  decrease  of  fa"  in  thickness  below  fa". 

8.  (a)  The  test  specimen  for  plates  shall  be  bent  cold  through  180° 
without  cracking  on  the  outside  of  the  bent  portion,  as  follows: 

For  material  or  under  in  thickness,  flat  on  itself;  for  material 
over  YY'  in  thickness,  around  a pin  the  diameter  of  which  is  equal  to 
the  thickness  of  the  specimen. 


13 


East  Jersey  Pipe 


14 


Inspection  and  Test — Lock-Bars 


Test 

Specimens 


Number  of 
Tests 


Permissible 

Variations 

Finish 

Marking 

Inspection 


(b)  The  test  specimen  for  Lock-Bar  bars  and  rivet  steel  shall  be 
bent  cold  through  180°  flat  on  itself  without  cracking  on  the  outside 
of  the  bent  portion. 

9.  (a)  Tension  and  bend  test  specimens  shall  be  taken  from  rolled 
steel  in  the  condition  in  which  it  comes  from  the  rolls  and  shall  be  of 
the  full  thickness  or  diameter  of  material  as  rolled  except  as  specified 
in  Paragraph  (c). 

(b)  Tension  and  bend  test  specimens  for  plates  may  be  machined 
to  the  form  and  dimensions  shown  herewith  or  with  both  edges 
parallel. 


t » **  1 

1 * 

PARALLEL  SECTION  ♦ 

“"notTebs  than' 9'"*  i 

1 — 

A 

1 

♦ -J?  T 

i i ‘r 

! v * 

j 

i 

t J 
■ 
• 
i 

• 

k!>!<-T--»K-ETCr* 
r*- 8- *i 

H ABOUT  18- * 

(c)  Tension  and  bend  test  specimens  for  lock-bars  may  be 
machined  to  a rectangular  section. 


10.  (a)  One  tension  and  one  bend  test  shall  be  made  from  each 
melt;  except  that  if  material  from  one  melt  differs  or  more  in 
thickness,  one  tension  and  one  bend  test  shall  be  made  from  both  the 
thickest  and  the  thinnest  material  rolled. 

(b)  If  any  test  specimen  show's  defective  machining  or  develops 
flaws,  it  may  be  discarded  and  another  specimen  substituted. 


(c)  If  the  percentage  of  elongation  of  any  tension  test  specimen 
is  less  than  that  specified  in  Section  4 (a)  and  any  part  of  the  fracture 
is  outside  the  middle  third  of  the  gauge  le  ngth,  as  indicated  by  scribe 
scratches  marked  on  the  specimen  before  testing,  a retest  shall  be 
allowed. 


11.  The  thickness  of  each  plate  shall  not  vary  under  the  gauge 
specified  more  than  0.01".  The  over  weight  shall  be  within  the  limits 
adopted  by  The  Association  of  American  Steel  Manufacturers  for 
plates  ordered  to  gauge. 

12.  The  finished  material  shall  be  free  from  injurious  defects  and 
shall  have  a workmanlike  finish. 


13.  The  melt  number  shall  be  legibly  stamped  on  all  finished 
material,  except  that  rivet  steel  and  Lock-Bar  bars  may  be  shipped  in 
securely  fastened  bundles  with  the  melt  number  legibly  stamped  on 
attached  metal  tags.  The  melt  number  shall  be  legibly  marked,  by 
stamping  if  practicable,  on  each  test  specimen. 

14.  The  Inspector  representing  the  purchaser  shall  have  free  entry 
at  all  times  while  work  on  the  contract  of  the  purchaser  is  being  per- 
formed, to  all  parts  of  the  manufacturer’s  works  which  concern  the 
manufacture  of  the  material  ordered.  The  manufacturer  shall  afford 
the  inspector,  free  of  cost,  all  reasonable  facilities  to  satisfy  him  that 
the  material  is  being  furnished  in  accordance  with  these  specifications. 
All  tests  (except  check  analyses)  and  inspection  shall  be  made  at  the 
place  of  manufacture  prior  to  shipment,  unless  otherwise  specified,  and 
shall  be  so  conducted  as  not  to  interfere  unnecessarily  with  the  opera- 
tion of  the  works. 


15 


Fabricating  “Lock-Bar” 


16 


Fabricating 


SPECIFICATIONS  FOR  COATING 

See  page  21. 


FABRICATING 

The  steel  plates  are  delivered  to  the  shop  where  they  travel  in  pro- 
gressive method  of  manufacture,  from  machine  to  machine,  each  designed 
to  perform  a particular  part  of  the  work,  in  a manner  that  insures  within 
the  machine  itself,  exact  conformity  to  the  specification  requirements. 


PLANING  AND  UP-SETTING 

The  design  of  “LOCK-BAR”  pipe  requires  that  the  longitudinal  edges 
of  the  plates  shall  be  planed  to  the  proper  dimension  and  the  edges  up-set 
to  a sufficient  degree  to  form  the  necessary  shoulder  for  engaging  the 
lock-bar. 

The  steel  plate  30  feet  long,  except  where  necessary  to  fit  pipe  to  plan 
and  profile  of  line,  after  passing  inspection,  is  delivered  to  the  planing  and 
up -setting  machine  shown  in  Figure  3,  and  each  longitudinal  edge  planed 
and  up-set  by  a traveling  carriage  equipped  with  cutter  and  up-setting  rolls, 
while  being  held  fixedly  in  position  by  a hydraulic  clamp  running  the  full 
length  of  the  machine.  Figure  4 shows  a close-up  of  the  planing  process 
and  Figure  5 the  up-setting. 

When  the  plate  leaves  the  planing  and  up-setting  machine  it  is  of  taper 
section,  to  provide  for  taper  joint  laying. 

Before  proceeding  further  the  edges  are  tested  by  gauging  for  up-set. 


TRUING,  PUNCHING  AND  BEVELING 

The  plate  is  then  laid  out  for  truing,  punching  and  beveling  on  the  ends, 
passing  to  the  combination  shearing  and  punching  machine  shown  in 
Figure  6.  It  is  trued  and  then  punched  by  sharp,  clean  punches  and  dies, 
leaving  clean  holes  without  burrs. 

From  here  it  passes  to  the  machine  shown  in  Figure  7,  where  the  ends 
are  bevel-sheared  for  caulking  purposes  in  laying,  the  bevel  on  each  end 
being  on  opposite  sides  of  the  plate.  Figure  8 shows  a bevel-sheared  end 
as  it  comes  from  the  machine. 


17 


18 


Testing 


CRIMPING  AND  ROLLING 

The  plate  passes  to  the  crimping  machine  shown  in  Figure  9 where  the 
longitudinal  edges  are  crimped  to  the  proper  radius  preparatory  to 
rolling.  The  crimping  is  done  so  as  to  eliminate  damage  to  the  up-set 
edges  in  the  rolls. 

The  plate  is  next  cold  rolled  as  shown  in  Figure  10,  to  the  radius  of  the 
cylinder  of  the  pipe. 

ASSEMBLING 

Assembling  then  begins,  in  pits  arranged  to  accommodate  them,  passing 
through  the  several  stages  as  follows:  Figure  11,  applying  the  lock-bars, 
previously  scarf  milled  at  opposite  ends,  see  Figure  12.  Figure  13,  lowering 
mate-half  into  lock-bar.  Figure  14,  drawing  up  the  several  sections  by 
means  of  heavy  steel  clamps. 

The  assembled  pipe  is  now  ready  for  the  final  fabricating  process.  It 
passes  into  the  pressing  machine  shown  in  Figure  15, where  both  lock-bars 
are  pressed  down  over  the  up-set  edges  of  the  plates  by  a hydraulic  press, 
exerting  a pressure  of  350  tons  per  lineal  foot  of  pipe. 

TESTING 

The  pipe  is  now  ready  for  testing.  It  is  conveyed  to  the  hydraulic 
testing  machine,  Figure  16,  and  subjected  to  a test  l-A  times  the  working 
pressure,  undergoing  a rigid  inspection  for  leakage  over  the  entire  length 
of  the  lock-bar  joints. 


19 


20 


Protective  Coatings 


COATING  PIPE 

Each  length  of  pipe  is  thoroughly  cleaned,  all  loose  scale,  rust,  grease 
and'dirt  being  removed.  It  then  passes  to  the  coating  room  where  it  is  heated 
in  the  oven  shown  in  Figure  17,  to  a temperature  of  from  350°  F.  to  400°  F. 
Upon  removal  the  pipe  is  then  immersed  in  a vertical  dipping  tank,  Figure 
18,  containing  a bath  of  specially  prepared  coating  which  is  also 
maintained  at  the  correct  temperature  for  dipping.  This  bath  is  deep 
enough  to  permit  entire  vertical  submergence  of  the  pipe.  It  receives  a 
strongly  adhering  coating,  ^ inch  or  more  in  thickness,  free  from  blisters 
and  bubbles.  This  coating  after  setting  will  not  become  soft  enough  to  flow 
at  a temperature  of  150°  F.  nor  brittle  enough  to  crack  or  scale  off  in 
freezing  temperature. 

After  the  pipe  sections  have  been  removed  from  the  bath,  they  are  set 
in  vertical  position,  Figure  19,  for  cooling  and  when  the  coating  has  become 
hard  are  ready  for  loading. 

Every  engineer  having  to  do  with  pipe  lines  knows  that  they  should 
be  protected  against  corrosion,  inside  and  out. 

Lock-Bar  steel  pipe  is  dipped  vertically  into  a bath  of  specially  pre- 
pared pipe-coating  which  embodies  all  the  qualities  that  long  experience 
in  this  field  has  shown  to  be  essential. 

This  coating  is  proof  against  the  corrosive  action  of  ground  water 
and^of  the  acids  and  alkalis  of  the  soil,  and  has  the  mechanical  properties 
— toughness,  tenacity  and  pliability — that  are  required  to  resist  the 
abrasion  and  other  abuse  to  which  pipe  is  subject  in  handling  and  laying. 

It  is  unaffected  by  the  extremes  of  atmospheric  temperature.  It  will 
neither  crack  and  crocodile  under  the  cold  of  winter,  nor  soften  and  run 
under  the  hottest  summer  sun.  Throughout  this  entire  range  of  temper- 
ature its  consistency  remains  practically  unchanged,  and  its  sturdy  tough- 
ness is  as  much  in  evidence  at  one  extreme  as  at  the  other. 

Such  a coating  makes  for  economy  in  two  ways.  Not  only  does  it 
prolong  the  life  of  the  pipe,  but  it  also  prevents  the  formation  of 
tubercles  and  the  resulting  loss  in  carrying  capacity.  Taken  together  with 
the  unobstructed  cross-section  and  the  smooth  interior  surface  that  are 
distinctive  features  of  Lock-Bar  pipe,  this  brings  about  a greater  carrying 
capacity  throughout  the  entire  life  of  the  pipe  and  insures  the  maximum 
of  pipe-line  efficiency. 


21 


Fabricating 


22 


Fabricating 


23 


Fig.  9— CRIMPING  EDGE  PREPARATORY  TO  ROLLING 


24 


Notes  on  Weights 


GENERAL  NOTES 

1 . All  weights  are  figured  on  the  basis  of  one  cubic  inch  of  ^steel  weighing 
0.2833  pounds. 

2.  All  gross  weights  are  figured  on  the  basis  of  30  foot  lengths. 

3.  All  weights  given  are  limited  to  two  decimal  places. 

4.  All  pipe  diameter  designations  are  inside  dimensions. 


25 


26 


27 


Fabricating 


Fig.  ll 

Applying 

The  “Lock-Bars” 


Fig.  14 
Drawing  up 
Before 
Pressing 


Fig.  13 

Assembling 

Halves 


Fig.  12 
Scarfed 
“Lock-Bar” 


28 


Fabricating 


29 


Weight  of  “Lock-Bar”  Pipe 


APPROXIMATE  FINISHED  WEIGHTS  PER  FOOT 
OF  DOUBLE  LOCK-BAR  PIPE 

Including  Plate,  Lock-bars,  Rivets  and  Coating 


Dia. 

3 // 
16 

M" 

5 ft 
16 

w 

7 tr 
16 

Vi" 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Lb. 

20" 

57.03 

74.00 

91.30 

113.50 

137.30 

150.80 

22" 

61.74 

79.62 

98.10 

122.06 

146.70 

162.50 

24" 

66.46 

85.24 

104.85 

130.60 

156.00 

174.40 

26" 

71.18 

91.32 

112.47 

138.90 

165.60 

185.37 

28" 

75.90 

97.23 

119.85 

147.52 

175.20 

196.34 

30" 

80.64 

102.95 

126.96 

156.47 

184.81 

207.31 

32" 

85.11 

108.87 

134.38 

165.11 

195.22 

219.27 

34" 

89.58 

114.98 

141.95 

173.43 

205.88 

231.23 

36" 

94.06 

121.25 

149.60 

181.40 

216.72 

243.20 

38" 

98.43 

127.83 

157.82 

191.72 

226.32 

255.87 

40" 

102.80 

134.19 

165.45 

200.67 

236.94 

268.54 

42" 

107.18 

140.30 

172.49 

208.29 

248.47 

281.22 

44" 

112.67 

147.33 

181.57 

218.59 

259.18 

291.69 

46" 

118.16 

154.36 

190.65 

228.89 

269.89 

302.16 

48" 

123.67 

161.40 

199.72 

239.20 

280.60 

312.60 

50" 

168.01 

206.53 

248.13 

290.94 

324.61 

52" 

174.62 

213.34 

257.06 

301.28 

336.62 

54" 

181.25 

220.15 

266.00 

311.62 

348.65 

56" 

187.52 

228.78 

274.97 

323.24 

361.93 

58" 

193.79 

237.41 

283.94 

334.86 

375.21 

60" 

200.05 

246.05 

292.90 

346.50 

388.50 

62" 

208.00 

254.34 

307.28 

357.84 

401.50 

64" 

215.95 

262.63 

317.60 

369.18 

414.50 

66" 

223.91 

270.94 

323.86 

380.52 

427.52 

68" 

231.19 

280  23 

333.83 

391.68 

439.52 

70" 

238.47 

289.52 

343.80 

402.84 

451.52 

72" 

245.76 

298.81 

353.76 

414.00 

463.53 

30 


Weight  of  Riveted  Pipe 


APPROXIMATE  FINISHED  WEIGHTS  PER  FOOT 
OF  DOUBLE  RIVETED  STEEL  PIPE 


Including  Plate,  Rivets  and  Coating 


Dia. 

3 II 

16 

MM 

_5_ll 

16 

H" 

_7_ll 

16 

y2" 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Lb. 

20" 

52.50 

70.20 

89.20 

108.10 

125.98 

145.10 

22" 

57.22 

76.45 

96.55 

117.25 

136.89 

157.70 

24" 

61.95 

82.70 

103.90 

126.40 

147.80 

170.30 

26" 

66.61 

88.98 

111.15 

134.81 

158.71 

181.61 

28" 

71.27 

95.26 

118.40 

143.22 

169.62 

192.92 

30" 

76.00 

101.55 

125.65 

151.65 

180.55 

204.25 

32" 

80.90 

107.73 

133.23 

160.66 

191.53 

216.00 

34" 

85.80 

113.91 

140.81 

169.67 

202.51 

227.75  • 

36" 

90.70 

120.10 

148.40 

178.70 

213.50 

239.50 

38" 

95.88 

126.61 

155.81 

188.50 

224.62 

252.08 

40" 

101.06 

133.12 

163.22 

198.30 

235.71 

264.66 

42" 

106.25 

139.65 

170.65 

208.05 

246.85 

277.25 

44" 

111.03 

145.76 

179.63 

217.50 

256.90 

289.83 

46" 

115.81 

151.87 

188.61 

226.45 

266.95 

302.41 

48" 

120.60 

158.00 

197.60 

236.40 

277.00 

315.00 

50" 

124.99 

164.15 

205.31 

246.08 

288.61 

326.85 

52" 

129.38 

170.30 

213.02 

255.76 

300.22 

338.70 

54" 

133.75 

176.45 

220.75 

265.45 

311.85 

350.55 

56" 

138.46 

182.86 

228.13 

274.56 

322.63 

363.76 

58" 

143.17 

189.27 

235.51 

283.67 

333.41 

374.97 

60" 

147.90 

195.70 

242.90 

292.80 

344.20 

387.20 

62" 

153.70 

202.30 

251.65 

302.28 

355.08 

399.25 

64" 

159.50 

208.90 

260.40 

311.76 

365.96 

411.30 

66" 

165.25 

215.50 

269.15 

321.25 

376.85 

423.35 

68" 

171.10 

222.17 

277.20 

^ 330.70 

387.43 

435.70 

70" 

176.90 

228.84 

285.25 

340.15 

398.01 

448.05 

72" 

182.70 

235.50 

293.30 

349.60 

408.60 

460.40 

31 


Fig.  16— TESTING  “LOCK-BAR”  PIPE 


Protective  Coatings 


Fig.  17 — Oven  where  Lock-Bar  is  heated  before  Dipping  in  Coating 


33 


Coating-Pipe 


Fig.  18— VERTICALLY  DIPPING  “LOCK-BAR”  PIPE 


34 


Fig.  19 — “LOCK-BAR”  PIPE  COOLING  AFTER  DIPPING 


Coating  Pipe 


End  Joints 


TAPER  JOINT 


The  most  successful  type  of  field  seam  for  ordinary  installations  where 
the  pipe  diameter  is  sufficiently  large  for  riveting  and  caulking  on  the 
inside.  The  larger  end  of  the  pipe  fits  over  the  smaller  or  taper  end  of  the 
contiguous  pipe.  After  riveting,  the  joint  is  caulked  both  inside  and  out. 
All  interior  seams  point  in  the  direction  of  the  line  of  flow. 


36 


End  Joints 


Fig.  21 

FLANGE  JOINT 

Flanges  are  cast  steel.  These  joints  are  suitable  for  both  high  and  low 
pressure  service.  They  are  furnished  riveted  onto  pipe  ends,  ready  for 
connecting. 


BUTT  STRAP  JOINT 


Butt  Strap  Joints  are  sometimes  furnished  to  meet  peculiar  condi- 
tions of  installation. 

i 


37 


High  Pressure  Joints 


Fig.  23 

HIGH  PRESSURE  FLEXIBLE  COUPLING 

(Patented) 

This  joint  is  suitable  for  all  high  pressure  work  and  forms  a perfect 
expansion  joint  and  flexible  coupling,  permitting  deflection  of  the  line  at 
each  joint.  It  consists  of  rolled  steel  follower  rings,  through-bolted,  and 
seated  on  rubber  gaskets  against  a steel  center  ring.  It  has  given 
eminently  satisfactory  service  wherever  used.  Especially  adapted  for 
gas  lines.  Advantageously  used  for  diameters  too  small  for  riveted  taper 
joint. 


Expansion  Joints 


Fig.  24 


EAST  JERSEY  EXPANSION  JOINT 

(Patented) 

An  expansion  joint  that  functions  perfectly  under  all  conditions  of 
service.  It  stays  tight  and  puts  the  minimum  strain  on  the  line.  Two 
mchorage  angles  are  shown  in  the  above  cut  at  the  right  of  joint. 


39 


Submarine  Joints 


Fig.  25 


SUBMARINE  JOINT 

(Patented) 

A desirable  joint  for  submerged  lines  because  of  the  ease  with  which  the  joint  is 
assembled  and  made  tight  under  working  conditions.  A follower  ring  seating  on  a rub- 
ber gasket  and  drawn  to  closed  position  by  large  bolts,  seals  the  joint.  This  design  also 
constitutes  an  expansion  joint  and  will  permit  considerable  deflection. 


40 


Flexible  Joints 


Fig.  26 

FLEXIBLE  SUBMARINE  JOINT 

Occasionally  used  on  submarine  lines  requiring  exceptional  deflection. 


41 


Pipe  Fittings— Manholes 


Type 


Description 


Number 
of  holes 


Diameter 
of  holes 


Weight 


A For  *"  Plate 

B For  \in  and  fz"  Plate . 

C For  and  Plate . 

D For  y2"  Plate 


tt" 

tt" 

15// 

16 

1A" 


215  lbs. 
215  lbs. 
215  lbs. 
215  lbs. 


STANDARD  MANHOLES 

Conforming  to  all  the  requirements  of  safety  and  convenience.  Manu- 
factured of  cast  steel  with  cast  iron  cover  and  arches.  It  is  provided  with 
a strong  anchor  chain.  The  Manhole  opening  is  14"  x 16"  oval.  Made  in 
four  types. 


Fig.  27 
Patented 


Pipe  Fittings 


STRAIGHT  SADDLES— 125  lbs.  pressure 


Manufactured  of  cast  steel  and  amply  heavy  to  stand  up  under  duty  without  fear 
of  breakage.  Provided  with  flange  end  and  made  in  the  several  sizes  listed. 


Diam.  D II 

Length 

L 

Thickness 

t 

Thickness 

T 

< 

Saddle  Flange 

Straight  Flange 

0) 

a 

>» 

H 

No.  of 
Holes 

Dia.  of 
Holes 

Q 

6 

d 

w 

No.  of 
Holes 

Size  of 
Holes 

4 

4 

X 

X 

5 

A 

B 

C 

20 

16 

12 

H 

*t 

1 re 

9 

7% 

8 

% 

6 

4f 

Vs 

1 

5y2 

A 

B 

C 

24 

20 

16 

ii 
H 
1 16 

11 

9 X 

8 

. Vs 

8 

4f 

% 

1 

5% 

A 

B 

C 

28 

24 

16 

H 

l* 

13  H 

nx 

8 

Vs 

10 

41 

% 

1 

6 

A 

B 

C 

28 

24 

16 

tt 

13. 

16 

16 

14X 

12 

1 

12 

51 

A 

IX 

ex 

A 

B 

C 

32 

28 

20 

H 

tt 

Its 

19 

17 

12 

1 

16 

51 

Vs 

IX 

6 X 

A 

B 

C 

36 

32 

24 

tt 

rf 

1* 

23  % 

21 X 

16 

IVs 

20 

61 

Vs 

■IX 

m 

A 

B 

C 

48 

44 

36 

tt 

« 

I*' 

27  H 

25 

20 

1% 

24 

61 

Vs 

IX 

6 x 

A 

B 

C 

48 

44 

36 

tt 

tt 

32 

29  V 

20 

IX 

30 

8 

l 

IX 

7 

A 

B 

C 

56 

32 

44 

« 

« 

i* 

38  % 

36 

28 

IX 

36 

10 

IX 

IX 

7 X 

A 

B 

C 

64 

60 

52 

8 

46 

42% 

32 

IVs 

48 

10 

IX 

IX 

7 X 

A 

B 

C 

76 

72 

64 

8 

1* 

59% 

56 

44 

IX 

43 


Pipe  Fittings 


-*1  ^l*-* 


Type  A for  3^  and  34  Plate 
“ B “ A “ % “ 

“ C « * « 34  “ 

STANDARD  BLOW  OFF 
CONNECTIONS 

Manufactured  of  cast  steel,  with 
ample  metal  at  all  points.  Flange 
joint  connection.  Built  in  the 
several  sizes  listed. 


Diam-D  II 

Length 

L 

Thickness 

t 

Thickness 

T 

Radius 

R 

Saddle  Flange 

Straight  Flange 

a 

a 

>> 

H 

No.  of 
Holes 

Dia.  of 
Holes 

Q 

o' 

d 

No.  of 
Holes 

Size  of 
Holes 

4" 

3" 

K" 

Vs" 

5" 

6" 

A 

B 

c 

20 

16 

12 

11" 
16 
13  // 
16 

1 A" 

9" 

7K" 

| 

! 8 1 

X" 

6" 

4" 

4" 

1 • 

K" 

K"  i 

1 

1" 

5K" 

7"  ^ 

A 

B 

C 

24 

20 

16 

A" 
it" 
1 A" 

11" 

j 9)2" 

8 

Vs" 

8" 

10" 

1" 

5K" 

8K" 

A 

B 

C 

28 

24 

16 

A" 

A" 

1A" 

13  K" 

11 K" 

8 

1 

K"J 

4" 

K" 

1" 

6" 

8 A" 

A 

B 

C 

28 

24 

16 

A" 

ii" 

1A" 

16" 

14  K" 

: 12 

1" 

12" 

5" 

K" 

1 Vs" 

6 K" 

9K" 

A 

B 

C 

32 

28 

20 

A" 

13// 

16 

1A" 

19" 

17" 

1 

12 

1" 

16" 

5" 

Vs" 

IX" 

6K" 

11" 

A 

B 

C 

36 

32 

24 

A" 

iS" 

23  K" 

21 K" 

16 

IK" 

20" 

1 

r 

Vs" 

IX" 

6K" 

13  K" 

A 

B 

C 

48 

44 

36 

A" 
H" 
l A" 

27  K" 

25" 

20 

IK" 

24" 

5" 

’ Vs" 

IK" 

6K" 

16" 

A 

B 

C 

48 

44 

36 

A" 
H" 
1 A" 

32" 

29  K" 

20 

| 1)4" 

30" 

5" 

1 „ 
1" 

IK" 

7" 

19" 

A 

B 

C 

56 

32 

44 

A" 

if 

38  H" 

36" 

28 

36" 

6" 

IX" 

1)4"  : 7M" 

22" 

A 

B 

C 

64 

60 

52 

A" 

H" 

1A" 

46" 

42  %” 

j 32 

48" 

7" 

IX" 

IK" 

7K" 

28" 

A 

B 

C 

76  ! H" 
72  | H" 
64  1 A" 

59  K" 

56" 

44 

IK" 

44 


Pipe  Fittings 


STANDARD  SOCKET  SADDLES 


New  England  Water  Works  Association  Standard. 


Dia,  D 

Length 

L 

Thickness 

t 

< 

Saddle  Flange 

Type 

No.  of 
Holes 

Dia  of 
Holes 

A 

24 

it 

6" 

4^" 

W 

5V2" 

B 

20 

it" 

C 

16 

irirSB 

A 

28 

w7  m 

8" 

4 X" 

X” 

5H" 

B 

24 

it" 

C 

16 

i*" 

A 

28 

it" 

10" 

4 X" 

X" 

6" 

B 

24 

it" 

C 

16 

1*" 

A 

32 

ft" 

12" 

5X" 

X" 

6 X" 

B 

• 28 

it" 

C 

20 

1*" 

A 

36 

iJL" 

16" 

5 H" 

Vs"  ' 

6 X" 

B 

32 

M" 

C 

24 

i*" 

A 

48 

it" 

20" 

6 Vs" 

%" 

6H" 

B 

44 

it" 

C 

36 

1*" 

A 

48 

it" 

2-1" 

6 W 

Vs" 

6 H" 

B 

44 

it" 

C 

36 

1*" 

A 

36 

it" 

30" 

8" 

1" 

7" 

B 

52 

it" 

. 

C 

44 

1*" 

A 

64 

it" 

36" 

10" 

IX" 

7 V" 

B 

60 

it" 

C 

52 

l*" 

, A 

76 

it" 

48" 

10" 

i x" 

7 X" 

B 

72 

it" 

C * 

64 

1*" 

A 

16 

it" 

4" 

6M" 

Vs" 

4" 

B 

12 

it" 

C 

8 

1*" 

45 


Pipe  Fittings 


Fig.  32 


Y’s  AND  TEES 

Specials  are  manufactured  to  meet  all  conditions.  They  are  fabricated 
of  steel  plate  and  furnished  with  either  riveted  or  flanged  connections. 


46 


Pipe  Fittings 


Fig.  34 


TYPES  OF  RIVETED 
SPECIALS 


Fig.  35 


47 


Pipe  Fittings 


Fig.  37 


Fig.  36 


REDUCERS 

Riveted  Steel  Plate  Reducers  are  made  up  to  meet  all  conditions. 


48 


Field  Test  Heads 


Fig.  38 


FIELD  TEST  HEAD 

(Patented) 


The  Company  is  prepared  to  rent  field  test  apparatus  to  be  used  by  the 
field  contractor  for  testing  the  tightness  of  pipe  joints  after  riveting  in  the 
field. 


This  apparatus  comprises  a steel  plate  dished  head  riveted  to  a cast 
iron  ring  and  provided  with  a rubber  gasket. 

In  using  this  device  an  angle  ring  which  is  provided  is  bolted  inside 
the  pipe  end  after  placing  the  head  and  rubber  gasket  inside  the  pipe. 

Two  hook  bolts  and  cross  members  are  used  to  draw  the  head  forward 
against  the  rubber  gasket  forcing  it  against  the  angle  ring. 

This  test  apparatus  has  been  widely  used  and  has  given  entire  satis- 
faction. It  is  built  with  a wide  factor  of  safety. 


49 


Working  Pressures 


SAFE  WORKING  PRESSURE  FOR  LOCK-BAR  PIPE 


Dia. 

_3_" 

16 

X" 

5 // 
16 

Vs" 

7 n 
16 

Dia. 

3 tt 
16 

X" 

5 // 
16 

Vi" 

7 n 
16 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Lb. 

20" 

258 

344 

430 

515 

601 

47" 

110 

146 

183 

219 

256 

21" 

246 

328 

410 

490 

573 

48" 

107 

143 

179 

214 

250 

22" 

234 

312 

391 

469 

545 

49" 

105 

140 

176 

210 

245 

23" 

224 

298 

374 

447 

522 

50" 

103 

137 

172 

206 

240 

24" 

215 

286 

358 

430 

501 

51" 

101 

135 

169 

202 

236 

25" 

206 

274 

344 

412 

480 

52" 

99 

132 

165 

198 

231 

26" 

198 

264 

331 

396 

462 

53" 

97 

130 

162 

194 

227 

27" 

191 

254 

318 

382 

445 

54" 

96 

127 

159 

191 

223 

28" 

184 

244 

308 

368 

428 

55" 

94 

125 

156 

188 

218 

29" 

178 

236 

297 

356 

414 

56" 

92 

122 

153 

184 

214 

30" 

172 

229 

287 

344 

400 

57" 

90 

120 

151 

180 

211 

31" 

166 

222  # 

278 

332 

388 

58" 

89 

118 

148 

178 

207 

32" 

161 

214 

269 

322 

375 

59" 

87 

116 

146 

175 

204 

33" 

156 

208 

260 

312 

364 

60" 

86 

114 

143 

172 

200 

34" 

152 

202 

253 

304 

354 

61" 

84 

112 

141 

169 

197 

35" 

147 

196 

246 

294 

343 

62" 

83 

111 

139 

166 

194 

36" 

143 

191 

239 

286 

334 

63" 

82 

109 

136 

164 

190 

37" 

139 

185 

232 

278 

324 

64" 

80 

107 

134 

161 

188 

38" 

136 

181 

226 

271 

317 

65"- 

79 

106 

132 

158 

185 

39" 

132 

176 

220 

264 

308 

66" 

78 

104 

130 

156 

182 

40" 

129 

172 

215 

258 

300 

67" 

77 

102 

128 

153 

179 

41" 

126 

167 

210 

252 

393 

68"- 

76 

101 

126 

151 

177 

42" 

123 

163 

205 

246 

286 

69" 

75 

100 

125 

149 

175 

43" 

120 

159 

200 

240 

280 

70" 

73 

98 

123 

147 

171 

44" 

117 

156 

195 

234 

274 

71" 

72 

97 

121 

145 

170 

45" 

115 

152 

191 

229 

268 

72" 

72 

95 

119 

143 

167 

46" 

112 

149 

187 

224 

262 

T.S.  =55,000  lbs.  P x r x f 

f =4  factor  of  safety  t= 

r = Radius  ^.S. 

e = 100%  eff.  of  joint  t x T.S. 

P = Safe  working  pressure  P= 

t = Thickness  of  plate  r x f 


Safe  working  pressure  for  double  riveted  pipe  70%  of  pressure  given 
in  table. 


50 


Working  Pressures 


SAFE  WORKING  PRESSURE  FOR  RIVETED  PIPE 


70%  Joint  Efficiency 


Dia. 

3 t> 
16 

K" 

5 n 
16 

y%" 

7 n 
16 

Dia. 

3 n 
16 

M" 

5 n 
16 

Vs" 

7 // 

re 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Lb. 

20" 

180 

240 

300 

360 

420 

47" 

77 

103 

128 

154 

180 

21" 

172 

230 

287 

343 

400 

48" 

75 

100 

125 

150 

175 

22" 

163 

218 

271 

326 

380 

49" 

73 

98 

122 

146 

170 

23" 

156 

208 

260 

312 

364 

50" 

72 

96 

120 

144 

168 

24" 

150 

200 

250 

300 

350 

51" 

71 

95 

118 

142 

165 

25" 

144 

192 

240 

288 

336 

52" 

69 

92 

115 

138 

160 

26" 

139 

185 

232 

278 

324 

53" 

68 

91 

113 

136 

158 

27" 

134 

178 

223 

268 

312 

54" 

67 

89 

112 

134 

156 

28" 

129 

171 

215 

258 

300 

55" 

66 

88 

110 

132 

154 

29" 

125 

167 

208 

250 

292 

56" 

64 

85 

107 

128 

149 

30" 

120 

160 

200 

240 

280 

57" 

63 

84 

105 

126 

147 

31" 

116 

155 

193 

232 

270 

58" 

62 

83 

103 

124 

145 

32" 

113 

150 

188 

226 

264 

59" 

61 

81 

102 

122 

142 

33" 

109 

145 

182 

218 

254 

60" 

60 

80 

100 

120 

140 

34" 

106 

141 

176 

212 

247 

61" 

59 

79 

98 

118 

137 

35" 

103 

137 

171 

206 

240 

62" 

58 

77 

97 

116 

135 

36" 

100 

133 

167 

200 

234 

63" 

57 

76 

95 

114 

133 

37" 

98 

130 

163 

196 

228 

64" 

56 

75 

93 

112 

130 

38" 

95 

127 

158 

190 

222 

65" 

55 

73 

92 

110 

128 

39" 

92 

123 

153 

184 

214 

66" 

54 

72 

90 

108 

126 

40" 

90 

120 

150 

180 

210 

67" 

54 

72 

90 

108 

126 

41" 

88 

117 

147 

176 

205 

68" 

53 

71 

88 

106 

123 

42" 

86 

115 

143 

172 

200 

69" 

52 

69 

87 

104 

121 

43" 

84 

112 

140 

168 

196 

70" 

51 

68 

85 

102 

119 

44" 

82 

109 

136 

164 

191 

71" 

50 

67 

83 

100 

117 

45" 

81 

108 

135 

162 

189 

72" 

50 

67 

83 

100 

117 

46" 

78 

104 

130 

156 

182 

51 


52 


Working  Pressures 


53 


54 


Thickness  of  Pipe 


Steel  Pipe,  either  Riveted  or  Lock-Bar,  within  ordinary  limits  can  bo 
made  of  any  required  diameter.  In  this  respect  it  differs  from  cast  iron  pipe, 
which  is  commonly  made  only  of  the  sizes  for  which  the  foundries  have 
molds.  The  diameter  should  always  be  specified  as  the  smallest  diameter 
of  the  smallest  ring,  where  the  rings  are  not  all  of  the  same  size. 

Weight  of  Steel  Pipe.  The  finished  weight  of  steel  pipe  per  lineal 
foot,  either  Riveted  or  Lock-Bar,  including  the  excess  weight  of  plates  rolled 
so  that  the  thinnest  points  in  the  plate  will  be  approximately  of  the  nominal 
thickness,  and  including  the  laps,  rivets  and  lock  bars,  material  in  the 
joints  and  coating,  may  be  found  approximately  by  the  formula: 

Weight  in  lbs.  per  foot  = (12.5  x diameter  x thickness)  + 10  lbs.  in 
which  diameter  and  thickness  are  to  be  taken  in  inches.  The  weight  of 
commonly  used  sizes  are  given  in  the  tables  on  pages  30  and  31. 

Thickness  of  Steel  Pipe.  (See  formula  on  charts,  pages  50  and  54.) 

Riveted  Pipe.  The  older  lines  of  steel  pipe  prior  to  the  introduction 
of  Lock-Bar  and  Welded,  were  all  riveted.  Generally  riveted  pipe  is 
made  up  of  steel  plates  seven  or  eight  feet  wide,  which  are  bent  so  that  one 
sheet  goes  entirely  around,  forming  one  section  of  pipe.  Four  of  these 
sheets  are  riveted  together  in  the  shop,  making  a length  of  pipe  28  to  30 
feet  long.  This  is  tested  for  tightness  and  dipped  in  protective  coating, 
and  then  shipped  to  the  place  where  it  is  to  be  used. 

The  circular  seams  may  be  single  riveted.  The  longitudinal  seams 
which  alone  are  required  to  carry  the  stress  due  to  the  pressure  of  the  water 
are  at  least  double  riveted,  except  where  the  pressure  is  very  low. 

IN-AND-OUT  courses  are  used,  alternate  rings  being  larger  and  smaller. 
Taper  Lengths  are  also  used  in  which  one  end  of  each  pipe  is  smaller  than 
the  other  end  and  will  slip  into  the  large  end  of  the  next  length.  Pipes 
have  also  been  made  with  all  the  lengths  the  same  size  fastened  together 
with  butt  straps  on  the  outside,  but  as  this  is  a more  expensive  method  it 
has  not  J)een  often  used. 

Continuous  Riveting  has  been  used  in  nearly  all  American  steel  pipe 
lines;  that  is,  each  length  of  pipe  in  the  field  has  been  tightly  riveted  to  its 
neighbors.  Practical  experience  with  this  system  of  construction  has  been 
satisfactory.  5 


55 


Strength  of  Riveted  Joints 


•Designed  and  Recommended  by  Hartford  Stm.  Blr.  Insp.  and  Ins.  Co. 

SINGLE  RIVETED  LAP  GIRTH  JOINTS 


Designed  and  Recommended  by  Hartford  Stm.  Blr.  Insp.  and  Ins.  Co. 

For  use  when  Rivets  of  same  diameter  are  used  in  Girth  and  Longitudinal  Joints. 


Diameter  of  Cold  Rivet,  Inches 

lA 

A 

K 

H 

K 

« 

X 

H 

1 

l* 

IK 

lA 

IK 

Maximum  Diameter  of  Rivet  Hole, 
Inches 

A 

K 

% 

« 

x 

>8 

1 

1 A 

IK 

Ift 

IK 

lA 

Pitch  of  Rivets  “P,”  Inches 

l X 

IK 

IK 

2 

2 K 

2K 

2A 

2K 

3A 

IK 

3K 

Gauge  “A,”  Inches 

A 

1* 

1 K 

IK 

1A 

lA 

1H 

1H 

itt 

itt 

2 

56 


Strength  of  Riveted  Joints 


DOUBLE  RIVETED  LAP  JOINTS 


T.S.— 55,000  pounds. S.S.— 42,000  pounds. 


Thickness 
* of 

Plate 
' Inches 

Diameter 

of 

Cold 

Rivet 

Inches 

Maximum 

Diameter 

of 

Rivet  Hole 
Inches 

Efficiency 

in 

Per  Cent 

Pitch 

of 

Rivets 

“P” 

Inches 

Space 

“A” 

Inches 

Gauge 

“B” 

Inches 

A 

Vi 

TS 

75.0 

2^ 

1A 

H 

A 

Vi 

TS 

75.0 

2 A 

l A 

H 

*A 

TS 

Vs 

73.6 

2Vs 

l A 

M 

A 

Vs 

H 

71.8 

2 TS 

1H 

l A 

*A 

TS 

Vs 

72.0 

2A 

1H 

H 

T7 

Vs 

H 

71.8 

2 rs 

1 32 

1 A 

* A 

Vs 

H 

71.8 

2 TS 

l» 

1 A 

A 

72.0 

2R 

1M 

IVs 

A 

71.7 

2Vs 

1^ 

1A 

A 

if 

70.0 

2H 

1 la 

I A 

* A 

Vs 

H 

70.0 

3V8 

IVs 

Vs 

70.0 

3Vs 

IVs 

in 

H 

l 

70.3 

3Vs 

2 

i h 

Vi 

1 

1A 

70.4 

3 if 

2^ 

in 

if 

1 

1A 

70.4 

3 if 

2 A 

in 

A 

1 

1A 

66.9 

3 if 

2Vs 

m 

H 

1 

1 A 

63.4 

3 if 

2 Ys 

in 

Vs 

l 

60.2 

3 if 

2Vs 

in 

U 

IVs 

1A 

65.9 

3 If 

2 n 

in 

H 

lVs 

1A 

62.9 

3 If 

2H 

in 

H 

IVs 

1A 

60.2 

3 If 

2H 

in 

A 

IVs 

1A 

57.7 

3 If 

2ii 

in 

n 

1 A 

1A 

60.8 

4 if 

2H 

in 

H 

IA 

1A 

58.5 

4M 

2Vl 

in 

M 

1 A 

1 A 

56.3 

4H 

2H 

in 

A 

1 A 

1A 

54.3 

4 ii 

2H 

in 

^Designed  and  Recommended  by  Hartford  Stm.  Blr.  Insp.  and  Ins.  Co. 


57 


Strength  of  Riveted,  Joints 


TRIPLE  RIVETED  LAP  JOINTS 


T.S. — 55,000  pounds. 


S.S. — 42,000  pounds 


Thickness 

of 

Plate 

Inches 

Diameter 

of 

Cold 

Rivet 

Inches 

Maximum 

Diameter 

of 

Rivet  Hole 
Inches 

Efficiency 

in 

Per  Cent 

Pitch 

of 

Rivets 

“P” 

Inches 

Space 

“A” 

Inches 

Gauge 

“B” 

Inches 

fa 

X 

!%■ 

78.5 

2 X 

IX 

Vz 

fa 

Vt. 

fa 

78.5 

2Vz 

IX 

Vz 

X 

Vi 

fa 

78.5 

2 Y% 

IVz 

Vz 

*X 

fa 

Vz 

78.2 

2% 

ix 

tt 

'fa 

fa 

Vz 

78.2 

2% 

IX 

H 

fa 

vz 

ii 

77.0 

3 

IVz 

1* 

'fa 

Vz 

ft 

77.0 

3 

IX 

1 fa 

Vz 

» 

77.0 

3 

IVz 

1 fa 

•H 

X 

H 

75.0 

3X 

2Vs 

1 fa 

X 

It 

75.0 

SX 

2Vs 

Ifa 

*fa 

H 

Vz 

75.0 

3 X 

2X 

Ifa 

fa 

Vs 

it 

75.0 

3/4 

2% 

lit 

Vz 

H 

75.0 

3X 

2% 

lit 

*k 

Vz 

H 

75.0 

3X 

2 X 

lit 

a 

X 

H 

75.0 

3X 

2Vs 

lit 

fa 

Vz 

It 

74.9 

3X 

2Vs 

1 it 

« 

1 

1* 

75.0 

4X 

2H 

lit 

% 

» 

1 

1* 

75.0 

4X 

2« 

lit 

1 

1* 

72.8 

4X 

2» 

lit 

1 

69.5 

4X 

2tt 

lit 

ft 

1 

66.4 

4X 

2H 

lit 

X 

IX 

l* 

71.2 

4% 

2ft 

1ft 

if 

1 Vz 

l* 

68.3 

4 X 

2H 

iff 

ft 

IVz 

1* 

65.7 

4X 

2ft 

1ft 

ft 

1 Vz 

1* 

63.3 

4X 

2H 

1ft 

K 

l X 

1* 

70.8 

5 

2Vs 

Iff 

ft 

1 X 

ifa 

68.4 

5 

2Vs 

Iff 

It 

IX 

Ifa 

66.1 

5 

2Vs 

lfi 

ft 

IX 

ifa 

63.9 

5 

2Vs 

lfi 

IX 

ifa 

62.0 

5 

2 Vs 

lfi 

^Designed  and  Recommended  by  Hartford  Stm.  Blr.  lnsp.  and  Ins.  Co. 


58 


59 


Strength  of  Riveted  Joints 


TRIPLE  RIVETED  BUTT  JOINTS 


SP  SP  SP 

/-J 

\ _ 

Yi 

6 

/? 

ft 

77^ 

3 

y 

y 

^ 

□ Lv 

Ct 

$ 

/? 

ft 

ft  4 

1 

v 

% 

$ 

h 

s 

y 

z: 

ir 

Ji 

£ 

< 

Jr  j 

7? 

5T 

m2 

ST 

*~A 

ST 

J5 

n 

f- >4 

[y. 

■f 

u 

pu 

y 

y. 
» 

"i  r 
ft  I 

J 

0Q| 

. N 

7^5 

y 

7—^ 

ii_ 

A 

bv1 

1 V! 

r . ^ 

7" 

v 

y <sy 

1 ^ 

\ 

Jj£. 

L_4£_ 

. LE  . 

) 5 

It 

T.  S.— 55,000  lbs.  Single  S.  S.— 42,000  lbs.  C.  S.— 95,000  lbs.  Double  S.  S.— 78,000  lbs. 


Thickness  of  Plate 
“T” 

Inches 

Diameter  of 
Cold  Rivet 
Inches 

Maximum  Diam 
eter  of  Rivet  Hole 
Inches 

Efficiency  in 
Per  Cent 

Long  Pitch 
“L.  P.” 
Inches 

Short  Pitch 
“S.  P.” 
Inches 

Gauge 

“A” 

Inches 

Space 

“B” 

Inches 

Space 

“C” 

Inches 

Width  of  outside 
Strap  “D” 
Inches 

Width  of  Inside 
Strap  “E” 
j Inches 

Thickness  of  Straps 
“t” 

Inches 

% 

% 

A 

87.5 

4% 

2% 

ft 

IX 

Iff 

63^ 

9% 

A 

*A 

% 

A 

87.5 

4 X 

2 % 

ft 

IX 

Iff 

6 X 

9H 

A 

A 

A 

X 

86.3 

4A 

2A 

ft 

IX 

IVs 

6 X 

10% 

A 

A 

ft 

X 

88.0 

6% 

3% 

ix 

1% 

2% 

8X 

12% 

% 

ft 

ft 

X 

88.0 

6% 

3% 

ix 

ix  ■ 

2X 

8X 

12% 

% 

% 

% 

ft 

87.5 

6% 

3% 

l A 

2 

2A 

8Vs 

13% 

A 

ft 

% 

ft 

87.7 

6 X 

3A 

l A 

2 

2A 

8Vs 

13% 

A 

A 

Vs 

ft 

86.1 

6% 

3 X 

1ft 

2A 

2ft 

9ft 

15* 

% 

ft 

Vs 

ft 

86.6 

7 

3% 

iff 

2% 

2ft 

9 X 

15  y 

% 

% 

1 

l* 

85.8 

7 X 

3 X 

iff 

234 

3A 

10  Vs 

17% 

% 

ft 

1 

1 A 

85.8 

7 X 

3 X 

1ft 

234 

3 A 

10  X 

17% 

ft 

A 

1 

1A 

85.9 

7A 

3ff 

iff 

2 A 

3A 

10  ft 

17* 

A 

ft 

1 

1A 

86.0 

7 X 

3ft 

1ft 

2 A 

3A 

10  ft 

17* 

A 

% 

1 

1A 

86.3 

7 X 

3 % 

1ft 

2A 

3A 

11 

173% 

ft 

ft 

1 

1A 

85.8 

7% 

3 x 

1ft 

2A 

3A 

11 

17% 

% 

ft 

1% 

1* 

84.7 

7% 

3 X 

iff 

2A 

3A 

113/* 

18% 

ft 

ft 

IX 

1* 

84.5 

7 X 

3% 

1ft 

2 A 

3A 

lit* 

18% 

ft 

% 

IX 

1* 

84.1 

7Vs 

3ft 

1ft 

2% 

3A 

11 X 

19 

A 

ft 

IX 

l A 

83.6 

7% 

3ft 

l ft 

2% 

3A 

nx 

19 

ft 

ti 

IX 

1A 

82.8 

7% 

3 it 

iff 

2Vs 

3ft 

12  V8 

20% 

% 

P 

IX 

1A 

82.2 

7% 

3 ft 

iff 

2Vs 

3ft 

12  V8 

20% 

% 

% 

IX 

1A 

82.5 

8% 

4 % 

1ft 

2 y2 

3ft 

12  X 

20% 

ft 

ft 

IX 

1A 

82.0 

8% 

4 % 

iff 

2 x 

3ft 

12  x 

20% 

ft 

ft 

IX 

1A 

81.7 

83 4 

4 X 

2 A 

2A 

4A 

13 

22% 

ft 

ft 

ix 

1 A 

81.5 

8% 

4A 

2 A 

2Vs 

4A 

13  Vs 

22% 

% 

1 

ix 

1A 

81.0 

8% 

4 A 

2A 

2Vs 

4A 

18Vs 

22% 

% 

*1* 

l X 

1 A 

80.6 

8% 

4 A 

2 A 

2 Vs 

4A 

13 

22% 

ft 

*1 A 

ix 

1A 

80.1 

s% 

4 A 

2A 

2Vs 

4A 

133^ 

22% 

*1* 

IX 

1 A 

80.0 

8 A 

4% 

2 A 

2Vs 

4A 

13% 

22% 

ft 

*1% 

IX 

1A 

79.1 

8% 

4 Vs 

2 ft 

2ft 

4H 

14% 

24% 

ft 

NOTE. — All  but  Items  marked  (*)  Designed  and  Recommended  by  Hartford  Stm.  Blr.  Insp.  and  Ins.  Co 


60 


61 


Rivets  in  Circular  Seams 


Standard  Number  of  Rivets  in  Single  Riveted  Circular  Seams 


Thickness 
of  Plate 

J T*” 

I W' 

I _5_" 

16 

I w 

A" 

V*” 

Dia.  of  Rivets 

'A" 

1 5A" 

M" 

1 w 

1 1" 

1 1" 

Dia.  of  Pipe 

Number  of  Rivets 

18" 

36 

28 

28 

24 

20 

24 

19"  ■ 

36 

32 

28 

24 

24 

24 

20" 

40 

32 

28 

28 

24 

24 

21" 

40 

36 

32 

28 

24 

28  - 

22" 

44 

36 

32 

28 

28 

28 

23" 

44 

40 

36 

32 

28 

28 

24" 

48 

40 

36 

32 

28 

32 

25" 

48 

40 

36 

32 

28 

32 

26" 

52 

44 

40 

36 

32 

32 

27" 

52 

48 

40 

36 

32 

36 

28" 

56 

48 

40 

36 

32 

36 

29" 

56 

48 

44 

40 

36 

36 

30" 

60 

52 

44 

40 

36 

40 

31" 

60 

52 

48 

40 

36 

40 

32" 

60 

52 

48 

44 

40 

40 

33" 

64 

56 

48 

44 

40 

40 

34" 

64 

56 

52 

44 

40 

44 

35" 

68 

60 

52 

48 

44 

44 

36" 

68 

60 

52 

48 

44 

44 

37" 

72 

64 

56 

48 

44 

48 

38" 

72 

64 

56 

52 

44 

48 

39" 

76 

64 

60 

52 

48 

48 

40" 

76 

68 

60 

52 

48 

52 

41" 

80 

68 

60 

56 

48 

52 

42" 

80 

72 

64 

56 

52 

52 

43" 

84 

72 

64 

56 

52 

56 

44" 

84 

76 

68 

60 

52 

56 

45" 

88 

76 

68 

60 

56 

56 

46" 

88 

80 

68 

60 

56 

60 

47" 

92 

80 

72 

64 

56 

60 

48" 

92 

80 

72 

64 

60 

60 

49" 

96 

84 

72 

64 

60 

64 

50" 

96 

84 

76 

68 

60 

64 

51" 

100 

88 

76 

68 

60 

64 

52" 

100 

88 

80 

68 

64 

68 

53" 

104 

92 

80 

72 

64 

68 

54" 

104 

92 

80 

72 

64 

68 

55" 

108 

92 

84 

72 

68 

72 

56" 

108 

96 

84 

76 

68 

72 

57" 

112 

96 

84 

76 

68 

72 

58" 

112 

100 

88 

76 

72 

76 

59" 

116 

100 

88 

80 

72 

76 

60" 

116 

100 

88 

80 

72 

76 

61" 

120 

104 

92 

80 

76 

80 

62" 

120 

104 

92 

84 

76 

80 

63" 

124 

108 

96 

84 

76 

80 

64" 

124 

108 

96 

84 

76 

84 

65" 

128 

108 

96 

88 

80 

84 

' 66" 

128 

112 

100 

88 

80 

84 

67" 

132 

112 

100 

88 

80 

84 

68" 

132 

116 

104 

92 

84 

88 

69" 

136 

116 

104 

92 

84 

88 

70" 

136 

120 

104 

96 

84 

88 

71" 

140 

120 

108 

96 

88 

92 

72" 

140 

120 

108 

96 

88 

92 

62 


63 


64 


Temperature  Stresses — Anchorages 


Temperature  Stresses.  Under  conditions  in  the  northern  states  the 
temperature  of  water  and  consequently  of  the  pipe  will  range  from  32  to 
75  or  80°F.,  or  for  average  conditions  the  range  is  about  45°.  The  pipe  must 
be  held  so  that  it  will  not  move  with  expansion  and  contraction.  Under 
these  conditions  the  change  in  temperature,  which  tends  to  expand  or 
contract  the  pipe,  uses  all  its  force  in  putting  it  under  stress.  The  stresses 
thus  produced  may  range  from  nothing  at  the  lower  temperature  to  the 
maximum  amount  in  compression  at  the  higher  temperature,  or  from  noth- 
ing at  the  higher  temperature  to  the  maximum  amount  in  tension  at  the 
lower  temperature,  or  they  may  be  divided,  coming  partly  in  tension  at  the 
lower  temperature  and  partly  in  compression  at  the  higher  temperature. 
This  depends  on  the  temperature  at  which  the  pipe  is  laid  and  finally 
connected  up.  Under  the  most  unfavorable  conditions  the  stresses  pro- 
duced by  temperature  in  this  climate  are  about  9000  lb.  per  sq.  in.,  and  as 
this  comes  well  within  the  strength  of  the  steel  no  difficulty  is  occasioned 
by  them.  Ordinarily  they  are  less  than  this. 

Anchorages  are  built  to  keep  the  pipe  from  moving  at  all  free  ends  and 
at  all  sharp  bends.  These  anchorages  are  formed  by  riveting  angle  irons 
to  the  steel  pipe,  usually  four  angles  being  attached  to  one  30-foot  length, 
with  a sufficient  number  of  rivets  to  hold  the  temperature  stresses,  and 
these  lengths  of  pipe  are  surrounded  with  concrete  reinforced  with  steel 
rails  of  such  a shape  as  to  be  capable  of  withstanding  the  computed  amount 
of  stress.  In  some  lines  anchorages  have  been  omitted  and  expansion 
joints  provided  at  all  gates,  ends,  and  other  places  when  continuity  of 
riveted  connection  cannot  be  maintained.  The  temperature  push  or  pull 
on  the  anchorage  in  tons  of  2000  lbs.  for  steel  pipes  of  various  diameters 
and  thicknesses  is  shown  in  the  last  column  of  the  table  below. 


DATA  FOR  STEEL  PIPE 


Great- 

Great- 

Great- 

est 

est 

est 

Thick- 

allow- 

Tem- 

Thick- 

allow- 

Tem- 

Thick- 

allow- 

Tem- 

Diam. 

ness  of 

able 

per- 

Diam. 

ness  of 

able 

per- 

Diam. 

ness  of 

able 

per- 

in 

plate 

depth 

ature 

in 

plate 

depth 

ature 

in 

plate 

depth 

ature 

inches 

in 

of 

stress 

inches 

in 

of 

stress 

inches 

in 

of 

stress 

inches 

cover 

in  net 

inches 

cover 

in  net 

inches 

cover 

in  net 

in 

tons 

in 

tons 

in 

tons 

feet 

feet 

feet 

30 

A 

5 

92 

A 

9 

257 

bA 

15 

551 

H 

8 

122 

TE 

12 

300 

60 

i$ 

3 

305 

12 

152 

A 

16 

343 

Vs 

4 

366 

% 

18 

183 

48 

A 

3 

196 

6 

430 

■h 

25 

214 

■A 

5 

244 

a 

8 

488 

36 

Y\ 

5 

147 

y% 

7 

293 

A 

12 

612 

A 

9 

183 

TE 

9 

342 

72 

TE 

2 

367 

% 

12 

220 

A 

12 

391 

Vs 

3 

440 

TE 

17 

257 

54 

A 

4 

275 

TE 

4 

515 

A 

22 

294 

Vs 

6 

330 

A 

6 

588 

42 

H 

4 

172 

lE 

8 

386 

A 

9 

735 

A 

6 

214 

A 

10 

441 

65 


Stiffener  Rings  and  Anchorage 


Fig.  39— VIEW  SHOWING  STIFFENER  RINGS  AND  ANCHORAGE. 


Steel  Bends 


67 


Bends — Superiority  of  Lock-Bar  Pipe 


Bends  in  Steel  Pipe  are  usually  made  by  cutting  off  some  of  the  plates 
at  the  joint.  Both  horizontal  and  vertical  bends  are  made  in  the  same  way. 
It  is  easier  to  lay  out  the  work  if  the  horizontal  and  vertical  bends  are  made 
in  separate  joints,  but  in  case  of  need  they  can  be  combined. 

The  amount  of  bend  that  can  be  made  in  one  joint  depends  upon  the 
size  and  thickness  of  the  plate.  With  j^-inch  plates  bends  up  to  5°  in  one 
joint  are  easily  made;  with  ^g-inch  plates  4°,  and  with  j^-inch  plates  3°. 
Sharper  bends  are  made  when  necessary  but  it  is  harder  to  calk  them  tight. 
With  crooked  lines  the  lengths  of  pipe  may  be  cut,  one  bend  made  every 
15  ft.  or  every  7}^  ft.  With  sharper  bends  special  arrangements  are  made. 

It  is  better  to  make  all  bends  in  steel  pipe  of  steel  plates  riveted  up, 
rather  than  of  castings,  and  in  case  of  sharp  bends  the  pipe  should  be 
anchored  on  both  sides,  to  carry  the  resultants  of  the  temperature  stresses. 

SUPERIORITY  OF  LOCK-BAR  PIPE 

The  usage  of  steel  pipe  increases  in  direct  proportion  to  the  working 
pressures  and  the  necessity  for  uninterrupted  service.  An  increasing 
tendency  toward  the  use  of  steel  pipe  on  distribution  systems  through  city 
streets  has  been  noticeable  in  recent  years;  On  supply  mains,  gas  lines, 
hydro-electric  installations,  etc.,  where  such  characteristics  as  dependability, 
flexibility  and  shock  absorbing  qualities  are  paramount,  steel  pipe  is 
almost  exclusively  used. 

From  the  severity  of  the  specifications  of  materials  and  construction, 
and  the  complete  and  modern  methods  of  fabrication  of  Lock-Bar  Pipe 
it  is  evident  that  in  no  pipe  works  is  greater  precaution  taken  to  safeguard 
the  interests  of  the  purchaser. 

Unlike  a great  many  manufactories,  where  iron  is  considered  merely 
iron  and  steel  is  just  steel,  the  Company’s  Engineers  and  Chemists  are 
continually  striving  to  insure  that  materials  shall  come  up  to  specifications, 
and  its  supervisors,  that  workmanship  shall  conform  to  the  exacting  stand- 
ards it  has  set.  In  a word  quality  is  the  dominant  keynote  and  permeates 
the  Company’s  entire  organization.  The  product  of  this  combined  effort 
is  passed  on  to  the  user  of  its  water  mains,  and  oil  and  gas  lines  in  the 
confident  belief  that  satisfactory  service,  over  a period  of  many  years, 
will  ensue. 

The  elements  which  make  for  superiority  are  strength,  carrying  capa- 
city, durability  and  cost. 

STRENGTH 

In-so-far  as  strength  is  concerned,  LOCK-BAR  STEEL  PIPE  outranks 
pipe  of  any  other  character,  All  steel  pipe  is  stronger  than  cast  iron  pipe. 
The  former  is  flexible,  the  latter  brittle.  As  a result  a blow  which  would 
break  cast-iron  pipe,  merely  dents  steel  pipe. 

Wood  stave  pipe  depends  upon  steel  hoops  or  bands,  which  hold  it  to- 
gether, for  strength.  More  steel  is  required  for  the  hoops  or  bands,  than  for 
a continuous  plate,  in  pipe  of  equal  strength. 

The  strength  of  steel  pipe  is  equal  to  the  strength  of  the  longitudinal 
joints.  Single  riveted  joints  have  an  efficiency  of  48%  to  60%.  Double 
riveted  joints,  68%  to  74%.  Welded  90%.  LOCK-BAR  joints  100%. 


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69 


Physical  Tests 


Fig.  42— STEEL  PLATE  BROKEN  IN  TEST  WITHOUT  INJURY  TO 
LOCK-BAR  JOINT. 

TESTS 

Many  tests  have  been  made  to  determine  the  fitness  of  LOCK-BAR 
Pipe.  A few  such  cases  are  cited  and  photographs  shown  of  actual 
test  pieces. 

Figure  42  is  of  interest  in  further  showing  the  strength  of  the  lock-bar 
joint  over  that  of  the  steel  plate  itself.  This  is  an  actual  section  cut 
out  of  a pipe  and  was  tested  by  pulling  in  an  ordinary  tension  machine 
which  broke  the  plate  without  opening  the  joints. 


70 


Physical  Tests 


Fig.  43 


Fig.  44 


During  January,  1919,  W.  J.  Krefeod,  Professor  of  Tests,  Columbia 
University,  New  York  City,  N.  Y.,  conducted  several  tests  to  determine 
the  strength  of  Lock-Bar  Pipe  joints,  with  the  following  results.  It  is  to  be 
noted  that  during  the  tests,  the  steel  plate  .375  inches  thick  broke  whereas 
the  joint  remained  closed  and  tight. 

In  the  sample  of  Lock-bar  joints: 

Marked — No.  1,  2,  3,  4 


For  test 


we  find: 


1 

2 

3 

4 

Material 

Steel 

Shape  of  test  piece 

Lock-Bar  joint 

Width  in  inches 

2.000 

2.000 

2.000 

2.000 

Thickness  in  inches 

0.375 

0.375 

0.375 

0.375 

Area,sq.  inches. 

0.750 

0.750 

0.750 

0.750 

Yield  Point,  lbs.  actual  load 

26,760 

26,630 

27,660 

Maximum  actual  load 

43,240 

43,250 

42.740 

43,330 

Yield  point,  lbs.  per  sq.  in 

35,650 

35,550 

36,900 

Ultimate  strength,  lbs.  per  sq.  in . . 

57,700 

57,700 

57,700 

57,750 

Distance  of  fracture  from  Joint,  in. . 

3K 

3M 

4M 

4K 

71 


East  Jersey  Pipe  Co 


72 


Carrying  Capacity 


CARRYING  CAPACITY 

In  the  determination  of  the  relative  advantages  of  different  characters 
of  conduits  many  elements  must  be  considered. 

For  this  purpose  the  following  discussion,  under  the  major  heads,  of 
“Friction,”  “Corrosion,”  “Cost,”  “Test,”  and  “Testimony”  is  printed 
herewith. 

Carrying  Capacity  of  Steel  Pipe.  Lock-Bar  steel  pipe  has  a smooth 
interior  unobstructed  by  rivets  and  has  a slightly  better  carrying  capacity 
than  cast-iron  pipe.  Riveted  pipe  is  less  smooth  in  the  interior,  the  pro- 
jecting rivets  increasing  the  friction  of  the  flowing  water,  and  also  the  numer- 
ous j oints  in  the  plates  with  either  in-and-out  j oints  or  with  taper  j oints . For 
these  reasons  riveted  steel  pipe  carries  from  10  to  15  percent  less  water 
than  Lock-Bar  pipe  or  cast-iron  pipe.  In  comparing  riveted  pipe  with  Lock- 
Bar  pipe  and  cast-iron  pipe,  a riveted  pipe  should  be  taken  with  a sufficiently 
greater  diameter  in  order  to  carry  as  much  water  as  the  others. 

The  carrying  capacity  of  pipes  of  the  same  diameter  varies  inversely 
with  their  frictional  resistance.  (See  “Flow  of  water  in  pipes,”  page  123.) 

LOCK-BAR  STEEL  PIPE  has  been  held  by  eminent  engineers,  in- 
cluding among  others,  J.  Waldo  Smith,  Clemens  Herschel  and  Allen 
Hazen,  to  have  ten  to  twenty  percent  less  resistance  than  riveted  steel 
pipe.  Preliminary  tests  on  36,000  feet  of  thirty-six  inch  pipe  at  Montreal, 
Quebec,  Canada,  indicated  a friction  loss  less  than  that  given  by  Weston’s 
tables  for  new  cast-iron  pipe. 

It  will  be  readily  understood  why  “LOCK-BAR”  pipe  has  so  much 
more  carrying  capacity.  Obstructions  to  flow,  causing  friction  and  reducing 
capacity  are  practically  eliminated.  The  absence  of  obstruction  and 
smooth  inner  surface  further  eliminates  opportunity  for  the  building  up 
within  the  pipe  of  deposits  to  restrict  the  pipe  area. 

Cast-iron  pipe  on  the  other  hand,  often  has  a rough  sandy  surface  and 
frequently  presents  a circular  ribbed  appearance  due  to  the  method  of 
manufacture . The  end  j oints  are  not  always  laid  concentrically  and  in  mak- 
ing a “curve  in  the  pipe”  without  “specials,”  the  interior  of  the  joints  are  left 
open  on  the  side,  top  or  bottom.  These  conditions  favor  the  growth  of 
organisms  upon  the  sides  and  top  of  the  pipe  and  deposits  upon  the 
bottom.  Riveted  pipe  is  open,  to  some  extent,  to  objections,  due  to  the 
obstructions  caused  by  rivet  heads,  but  Lock-Bar  pipe  has  but  one  fourth 
the  number  of  circular  seams  that  riveted  pipe  has  and  but  40%  of  the 
joints  of  a cast-iron  pipe  of  12  foot  length.  Moreover  the  smooth  longitu- 
dinal seams  have  no  rivets  to  furnish  easy  attachment  for  foreign  matter 
and  to  create  eddies  and  the  resultant  friction  and  loss  of  head. 


73 


Corrosion 


CORROSION 

Numberless  discussions  have  taken  place  as  to  the  relative  life  of  steel, 
wrought-iron  and  cast-iron  pipe,  in-so-far  as  corrosion  affects  durability. 
One  of  the  strongest  arguments  in  favor  of  steel  pipe  over  wrought  iron, 
in  this  respect,  which  has  come  to  our  notice  within  recent  years,  aside 
from  the  actual  testimony  of  installations,  is  that  presented  by  one  of  the 
best  known  seamless  tube  and  small  pipe  manufacturers  in  the  country,  in 
their  abandonment  of  charcoal  and  puddled  iron  for  steel  tubes,  in  1909. 
We  quote  from  this  testimony  as  follows:  “The  use  of  steel  for  welded 

pipe  was  made  possible,  in  the  first  place,  through  the  manufacture  by 

of  a special  grade  of  low  carbon  steel,  — . Steel  pipe 

has  in  later  years  superseded  wrought-iron  pipe  by  proving  its  superiority 
in  strength,  ductility,  and  finally,  as  made  under  modern  processes,  by  its 
superior  durability. 

“As  manufacturers  of  both  wrought-iron  and  steel  pipe  for  many  years, 
we  have  had  a special  interest  in  this  question  of  durability,  about  which 
there  has  been  so  much  debate,  and  with  our  dual  interest  have  had  ex- 
ceptional opportunities  to  make  comparison  of  these  materials  under  all 
manner  of  service.  Moreover,  we  have  frequently  shipped  a wrought-iron 
coupling  on  steel  pipe,  so  that  in  case  of  any  external  corrosion,  a compari- 
son of  the  two  materials  could  be  readily  made  under  the  same  conditions. 
As  a result  of  an  extended  study  of  this  question  in  the  laboratory  and  in 
the  field,  and  with  the  experience  of  many  large  consumers  of  pipe,  who 
have  made  careful  observations  from  cases  where  both  iron  and  steel  pipe 
were  used  under  the  same  conditions,  there  was  no  further  room  for  doubt 

as  to  the  advantage  of  steel  pipe, , in  respect  to  its  resistance  to 

corrosion,  particularly  as  to  pitting 

CAUSE  OF  CORROSION 

There  is  considerable  difference  of  opinion  on  this  particular  phase  of 
the  subject,  but  never-the-less  the  following  is  given,  as  a condensed  survey 
of  a few  underlying  facts,  which  have  been  established  by  experiment. 

We  quote  from  a recent  authority  on  the  subject:  “It  is  claimed  by 
some  who  have  studied  the  problem  that  corrosion  is  due  to  ‘differences’ 
of  electrolytic  potential  between  two  adjacent  places  on  the  surface  of  the 
metal,  resulting  in  pitting.  This  difference  may  be  due  to  lack  of  homo- 
geneity in  the  metal,  but,  it  is  believed,  more  often  is  caused  by  foreign 
matter  electro-negative  to  iron,  attached  to  the  surface;  such  as  mill  scale, 
carbon  or  rust  itself.  It  has  been  clearly  established  that  corrosion 
consists  of  two  main  reactions,  namely;  the  solution  of  a small  part  of  the 
iron  in  water,  and  the  subsequent  oxidation  of  the  ferrous  iron  in  solution 
to  ferric  hydroxide,  which  is  then  precipitated  out  as  ‘rust.’  The  amount 
of  the  corrosion  is  still  further  increased  by  the  combination  of  free  oxygen 
with  the  hydrogen,  which  was  deposited  on  the  surface  of  the  metal  when 
iron  went  into  solution.  This  cycle  of  reactions  is  repeated,  and  the  ‘rust’ 


74 


Corrosion 


continues  to  accumulate  so  long  as  both  water  and  air  are  present.  Other 
agencies  may  accelerate  the  process  of  corrosion,  but  in  the  absence  of 
either  one  of  these  elements,  no  corrosion  can  take  place.  Steel  will  remain 
clean  and  bright  for  an  indefinite  period  in  dry  air,  and  also  in  water  that 

is  free  from  air.  Hence  the  necessity  to  see  to  it  that, iron  and  steel 

are  protected  by  impervious  and  durable  coatings.” 

The  late  Prof.  F.  L.  Kortright  says,  “The  rusting  of  iron  or  steel  is 
caused  by  the  combined  action  of  water  (condensed  on  the  metal) , carbon 
dioxide  (or  some  .other  volatile  acid),  and  oxygen,  and  the  presence  of 
certain  salts  increases  the  rapidity  of  action.  The  effect  of  the  substances 
seems  to  be,  first,  the  formation  of  ferrous  carbonate,  then  ferrous  bicar- 
bonate and  this  is  broken  down  into  magnetic  oxide  of  iron  (giving  off  the 
carbon  dioxide  which  acts  on  more  iron  to  form  ferrous  carbonate),  and 
the  magnetic  oxide  is  finally  oxidized  to  hydrated  ferric  oxide  which  is  the 
ordinary  condition  in  which  rust  exists.” 


Fig.  46 

STEEL  Vs.  CAST-IRON  PIPES 


The  Coolgardie  pipe  line,  which  was  a 30”  steel  pipe  main  installed  in 
Coolgardie,  Australia,  in  1900,  is  frequently  referred  to  by  certain  interests 
as  an  example  of  a failure  of  steel  pipe.  In  the  evidence  of  the  various 
experts  appointed  by  the  Commission  to  investigate  the  troubles  attending 
the  Coolgardie  pipe  line  many  interesting  facts  were  disclosed.  The  water 
supply  itself  was  found  to  contain  26  parts  of  sodium  cloride  and  5 parts  of 
magnesium  cloride  per  100,000.  The  report  states  “It  is  to  be  expected 
that  such  a water  would  possess  more  than  usual  corrosive  action  upon  iron 
or  steel.” 

With  regard  to  the  external  corrosion,  the  report  states  “The  sandy  soil 
along  this  pipe  line  is  so  impregnated  with  salt  that  in  many  places  it 


75 


Corrosion 


absolutely  glistens,  in  which  case  it  is  hardly  surprising  that  external  corro- 
sion set  in.  The  main  is  seriously  corroded  over  a portion  of  its  length 
which  had  been  coated  with  a special  solution  applied  at  a low  temperature ; 
so  low,  in  fact,  that  under  the  burning  sun  of  West  Australia  it  was  found 
that  the  coating  ran.  off  the  pipes  before  they  were  laid.  For  this  reason 
this  particular  coating  was  abandoned  and  a harder  coating  subsequently 
used.  Unfortunately  the  benefit  of  this  hard  coating  was  largely  neutralized 
as  some  of  the  pipes  were  exposed  to  the  sun  for  two  years  before  they  wTere 
laid . On  inspection  it  was  found  that  wherever  the  pipe  line  was  sufficiently 
coated,  despite  these  corrosive  surroundings,  was  practically  in  as  good  a 
state  of  preservation  as  when  laid . Had  the  pipes  been  laid  above  ground  as 
recommended  by  the  Commission  the  external  corrosion  as  caused  by  the 
soluble  salts  contained  in  the  soil  would  have  been  entirely  done  away 
with. 

Extract  from  “Civil  Engineering,”  April  1912: 

“Evidence  of  any  local  failure  of  either  cast-iron  or  steel  pipes  is  of  little 
value  when  comparing  the  two  metals  unless  one  has  evidence  of  the  be- 
haviour of  both  under  similar  conditions.  Fortunately,  in  the  case  of  the 
West  Australia  Pipes  (Coolgardie)  there  is  ample  evidence  on  both  sides. 
In  this  district  a 12-in.  cast-iron  main  was  laid  in  1890.  This  gave  consider- 
able trouble,  so  that  when  an  increased  supply  was  required  in  1897,  a 21-in. 
steel  main  was  laid,  and  this  has  proved  highly  satisfactory. 

The  Perth  supply  (delivered  by  a 12-in.  cast-iron  and  a 21-in.  steel  main) 
contains  about  12  grains  per  gallon  of  these  corrosive  compounds.  Eight 
years  ago  the  cast  iron  main  was  so  corroded  that  scraping  from  end  to 
end  was  necessary,  and  five  years  later  this  process  had  to  be  repeated. 

“The  illustration,  (fig.46) , which  was  taken  at  random,  shows  the  appear- 
ance of  one  of  these  pipes  after  five  years’  corrosion.  The  nodules  of  rust 
were  found  to  be  from  2 in.  to  3 in.  thick,  and  covered  the  entire  inner 
surface  of  the  pipe.  On  removal,  the  metal  surface  of  the  pipe  appeared 
to  be  unaffected.  On  investigation,  however,  it  was  found  that  it  could  be 
cut  into  with  a knife,  and  a soft  black  mass  ^ in.  thick  was  removed.  Under 
this  the  true  metallic  surface  was  found  to  be  extensively  and  irregularly 
corroded. 

“A  section  of  the  21-in.  steel  main  was  removed  for  examination  after 
eleven  years’  use.  The  coating  of  this  pipe  was  in  good  order,  being  dark 
and  lustrous,  and  showed  very  little  evidence  of  decay.  The  surface  of  the 
coating  was  covered  with  a very  thin  film  of  brown  earthy  sediment,  which, 
however,  was  not  sufficiently  thick  to  hide  the  coating. 

“In  comparing  cast-iron  and  steel  pipes  it  is  desirable  to  further  study 
Australian  experience.  The  facts  are  that,  while  under  exceptionally  un- 
favorable conditions  the  Coolgardie  main  has  given  some  trouble,  the  local 
experts  know  by  bitter  experience  that  cast-iron  would  have  given  much 
more.  All  the  other  leading  centers  throughout  Australasia — Melbourne, 
Sydney,  Adelaide,  Perth,  Brisbane,  Auckland,  Wellington,  and  a number 
of  others — are  supplied  with  steel  water  mains  which,  one  and  all,  have 


76 


Corrosion 


proved  unqualified  successes.  The  original  Melbourne  wrought  water 
mains,  58  miles  long  and  varying  in  diameter  from  32  in.  to  53  in.  were  laid 
in  1884.  According  to  recent  advice  from  the  Inspector-General  of 
Works  in  Melbourne,  these  mains  are  in  as  good  preservation  as  when  laid. 
The  same  condition  prevails  in  other  smaller  mains  installed  there  since. 
One — a 24-in.  main — laid  in  1887  is  particularly  interesting  in  that  it  affords 
a direct  comparison  with  cast-iron. 

The  engineer  wrote,  with  regard  to  this  main : 

“ ‘Some  alterations  in  this  main  necessitated  cutting  out  a length,  in- 
cluding a 12-in.  cast-iron  branch  nipple.  This  I found  to  be  an  advantage, 
as  it  afforded  me  a welcome  opportunity  of  examining  the  plates  in  several 
places.  Inside  the  pipe  is  now  as  if  it  had  just  come  out  of  the  (tube), 
works,  so  perfect  and  japan-like  is  the  coating,  and,  making  allowance  for 
the  adhering  clay,  the  same  may  be  said  of  the  outside.  This  is  the  more 
remarkable  from  the  fact  that,  in  an  equal  period,  a cast-iron  pipe  of  equal 
diameter  would  have  lost  at  least  1 in.,  and  more  probably  2 in.,  of  section 
from  corrosion.  The  cast-iron  branch  which  had  been  connected  to  this 
wrought-iron  pipe,  with  its  valve,  were  heavily  covered  with  material 
adhering  to  the  inner  surface  in  the  form  of  nodules,  and  consisting  of  oxide 
of  iron  and  earthy  matter  attracted  to  it.  This  deposit  or  incrustation  is 
peculiar  to  all  cast-iron  pipes,  large  and  small,  in  the  Melbourne  water- 
supply  system.  Its  rate  of  growth  is  equal  to  the  complete  filling  up  of  a 
4-in.  pipe  in  from  15  to  18  years.’ 

“Profiting  by  the  success  of  steel  pipes  in  Australasia,  other  countries 
have  followed  suit.  Eighteen  years  ago  Durban  (South  Africa)  laid  an 
18-in.  water-supply  main  of  steel  which  proved  so  successful  that  two 
years  ago  they  again  ordered  another  large  steel  main.  Monte  Video,  after 
experience  of  cast-iron,  duplicated  their  existing  main  with  one  of  steel, 
30-in.  in  diameter  and  30  miles  long.  Fifteen  years  ago  Bradford  (York- 
shire) laid  two  36-in.  water-supply  mains  which  have  proved  an  unqualified 
success.  Some  years  ago  the  Leeds  Municipal  authorities,  having  in  view 
the  experience  of  Bradford,  laid  24  miles  of  33-in.  steel  pipes  for  a water 
supply.  In  Leeds  neighbourhood  there  are  well  preserved  samples  of 
wrought-iron  pipes  which  have  been  in  the  ground  from  fifty  to  sixty  years. 
Other  towns  in  Great  Britain  which  have  laid  steel  mains  during  recent 
years  are  Manchester,  Swansea,  Cardiff  and  many  smaller  towns.  All  the 
leading  centres  of  population  throughout  South  Africa  have  adopted  steel 
water  mains , some  of  which  have  been  in  successful  operation  for  over  twenty 
years, 

“Probably  the  best  evidence  of  the  successful  application  of  steel  pipes 
is  the  rapidly  increasing  demand  for  them  in  all  parts  of  the  world  in  recent 
years. 

Relative  Corrosion  of  Wrought  Iron  and  Steel.  (H.  M.  Howe, 
Proc.  A.  S.  T.  M.,  1906.) — On  one  hand  we  have  the  very  general  opinion 
that  steel  corrodes  very  much  faster  than  wrought-iron,  an  opinion  held 


77 


Corrosion 


so  widely  and  so  strongly  that  it  cannot  be  ignored.  On  the  other  hand  we 
have  the  results  of  direct  experiments  by  a great  many  observers,  in  differ- 
ent countries  and  under  widely  differing  conditions;  and  these  results  tend 
to  show  that  there  is  no  very  great  difference  between  the  corrosion  of  steel 
and  wrought-iron.  Under  certain  conditions  steel  seems  to  rust  a little  faster 
than  wrought-iron,  and  under  others  wrought-iron  seems  to  rust  a little  faster 
than  steel.  Taking  the  tests  in  unconfined  sea  water  as  a whole  wrought- 
iron  does  constantly  a little  better  than  steel,  and  its  advantage  seems  to  be 
still  greater  in  the  case  of  boiling  sea  water.  In  the  few  tests  in  alkaline 
water  wrought-iron  seems  to  have  the  advantage  over  steel,  whereas  in 
acidulated  water  steel  seems  to  rust  more  slowly  than  wrought-iron. 

Steel  which  in  the  first  few  months  may  rust  faster  tin  n wrought-iron 
may,  on  greatly  prolonging  the  experiments,  or  pushing  them  to  destruc- 
tion, actually  rust  more  slowly,  and  vice  versa. 

Carelessly  made  steel,  containing  blowholes,  may  rust  faster  than 
wrought-iron,  yet  carefully  made  steel,  free  from  blowholes,  may  rust  more 
slowly.  Any  difference  between  the  two  may  be  due  not  to  the  inherent 
and  intrinsic  nature  of  the  material,  but  to  defects  to  which  it  is  subject  if 
carelessly  made.  Care  in  manufacture,  and  special  steps  to  lessen  the 
tendency  to  rust,  might  well  make  steel  less  corrodible  than  wrought-iron, 
even  if  steel  carelessly  made  should  really  prove  more  corrodible  than 
wrought  iron. 

For  extensive  discussions  on  this  subject  see  Trans.  A.  I.  M.  E...  1905. 
Proc.  A.S.T.  M.,  1906  and  1908,  and  Bulletins  of  National  Tube  Co. 

Corrosion  of  Iron  and  Steel. — Experiments  made  at  the  Riverside 
Iron  Works,  Wheeling,  W.  Va.,  on  the  comparative  liability  to  rust  of  iron 
and  soft  Bessemer  steel:  A piece  of  iron  plate  and  a similar  piece  of  steel, 
both  clean  and  bright,  were  placed  in  a mixture  of  yellow  loam  and  sand, 
with  which  had  been  thoroughly  incorporated  some  carbonate  of  soda, 
nitrate  of  soda,  ammonium  chloride,  and  chloride  of  magnesium.  The 
earth  as  prepared  was  kept  moist.  At  the  end  of  33  days  the  pieces  of  metal 
were  taken  out,  cleaned,  and  weighed,  when  the  iron  was  found  to  have 
lost  0.84%  of  its  weight  and  the  steel  0.72%.  The  pieces  were  replaced  and 
after  28  days  weighed  again,  when  the  iron  was  found  to  have  lost  2.06% 
of  its  original  weight  and  the  steel  1.79%.  ( Eng’g , June  26,  1891.) 


78 


Electrolysis 


* ELECTROLYSIS 

Electrolysis  in  Cast-iron  Pipes  is  caused  by  stray  return  currents  of 
electricity  from  various  sources,  especially  from  trolley  car  lines.  These 
stray  currents  find  their  way  into  water  pipes  through  the  soil  or  through 
service  pipes  or  hydrant  connections  or  gas  pipes  or  telephone  conduits  or 
any  other  metallic  structures  coming  in  contact  with  the  water  pipes  or  the 
services  connected  with  them.  Such  currents  flow  in  the  pipes,  leaving 
them  at  points  near  the  power  stations,  or  go  through  other  metallic  con- 
ductors to  the  power  station. 

Destruction  of  a Pipe  by  electrolysis  occurs  in  two  ways:  (1)  By  a current 
collected  by  the  pipe,  following  it  for  a distance  and  then  leaving  it  in  moist 
soil,  the  electrolysis  occurring  at  the  point  where  the  current  leaves  the  pipe. 
(2)  By  the  flow  of  electricity  in  the  pipe,  a part  of  which  leaves  the  pipe  at 
lead  joints  or  other  points  of  extra  resistance,  coming  back  into  the  next 
length  of  pipe.  These  two  kinds  of  electrolysis,  while  having  the  same 
effect  on  the  pipe,  are  to  be  sharply  distinguished.  Electrolysis  of  the  first 
kind  may  be  corrected  in  great  measure  by  connecting  the  pipe  system  with 
the  negative  poles  of  the  dynamos  at  all  power  stations.  This  has  the  effect 
of  taking  the  return  current  out  of  the  pipes  directly  through  a copper  wire 
and  avoiding  the  necessity  of  currents  leaving  the  pipe  in  moist  ground  on  the 
return  journey.  This  method  of  treating  the  electrolysis  question  was  pro- 
posed in  the  early  days  of  electrolysis  and  used  to  a considerable  extent. 
The  principal  objection  to  it  is  that  it  produces  electrolysis  of  the  second 
kind.  This  system  is  openly  followed  in  some  works,  and  is  actually 
followed  by  unknown  and  indirect  connections  in  others. 

In  cast-iron  pipe  lines  the  lead  joint  is  a point  of  high  resistance.  The 
temperature  of  the  melted  lead  is  not  sufficient  to  burn  off  the  tar  coating, 
and  actual  metallic  connection  is  not  made  in  all  cases.  The  electric  current 
goes  through  the  soil  around  the  joint  in  sufficient  quantity  to  produce  elec- 
trolysis on  one  side  of  the  joint.  This  takes  place  in  wet  soil  only.  Dry 
soil  is  a non-conductor.  When  electricity  makes  a passage  it  goes  through  the 
water  contained  in  the  pores  of  the  soil,  and  not  through  the  soil  particles. 
Water  is  a non-conductor,  but  it  becomes  a conductor  when  mineral  sub- 
stances are  dissolved  in  it. 

Electrolysis  of  the  interior  of  pipes  is  extremely  rare,  because  the  water 
used  for  public  water  supply  is  not  sufficiently  mineralized  to  act  as 
a conductor.  If  the  water  in  the  soil  outside  the  pipe  were  equally  pure 
from  an  electrolytic  standpoint  there  would  presumably  be  little  trouble 
from  this  kind  of  electrolysis. 

Electrolysis  occurs  because  the  ground  water  contains  mineral  matter 
and  salts  which  increase  its  conductivity.  The  mineral  matters  in  ground 
water  may  result  from  many  sources,  among  them : (1)  From  cesspools  and 


*Merriman  Third  Edition 


79 


Electrolysis 


similar  sources,  which  are  known  to  increase  the  chlorine  contents  of  ground 
water  to  from  10  to  100  times  the  natural  amounts,  in  villages  and  cities, 
and  to  less  extent  in  rural  districts,  (2)  Urine  of  horses  falling  on  public 
roads,  (3)  Sea  water  brought  by  the  rain,  this  being  a matter  of  importance 
only  when  pipes  are  not  very  far  from  the  ocean,  (4)  Solution  of  mineral 
matters  from  the  soil. 

Insulation  Joints  are  joints  made  of  some  non-conducting  material  to 
prevent  the  flow  of  electricity  in  pipes.  Such  joints  have  been  made  by 
driving  wooden  wedges  between  the  spigot  and  bell  of  the  cast-iron  pipe  in 
place  of  the  lead.  To  be  effective  they  must  be  repeated  at  short  intervals, 
as  the  electric  current  will  jump  a number  of  such  joints,  passing  through  the 
surrounding  moist  soil  and  causing  electrolysis  at  each  of  them. 

Electrolysis  of  Steel  Pipe.  The  riveted  joints  of  steel  pipe  are  almost 
perfect  conductors  of  electricity.  There  is  no  evidence  that  a current 
flowing  in  a steel  pipe  injures  it  in  any  way  as  long  as  it  does  not  leave  the 
pipe.  An  electric  current  flowing  in  steel  pipe  and  leaving  it  results  in 
electrolysis  at  the  point  where  it  leaves  the  pipe. 


Fig  47— EFFECT  OF  ELECTROLYSIS  ON  CAST  IRON  PIPE— SPECIMEN  NO.  1. 


80 


Electrolysis 


81 


Insulating  Wrappings 


Fig.  49 

INSULATING  WRAPPINGS 

As  a further  protection  to  the  pipe  coating  this  Company  is  prepared  to 
furnish  its  pipe  with  a special  coating  of  impregnated  burlap  (Figure  49), 
put  on  by  a process  developed  in  our  works.  It  will  be  obvious  that 
greater  mechanical  strength  is  lent  to  the  protective  coatings  against 
abrasion  during  transportation  and  installation.  The  effective  thickness  of 
protection  is  also  cheaply  increased. 

This  process  is  as  follows:  The  pipes  are  dipped  in  the  regular  pipe 
coating  as  usual  and,  after  this  coat  has  set,  they  are  sent  to  a wrapping 
machine  in  which  the  pipes  are  slowly  rotated  on  centers.  A reel  carrying 
a roll  of  10-oz.  Calcutta  burlap,  cut  into  strips  18"  wide,  is  placed  on  a 
carriage  which  travels  lengthwise  of  the  machine  during  the  rotation  of  the 
pipe.  As  the  carriage  travels  and  the  burlap  is  unwound  from  the  reel  by 
the  revolving  pipe,  it  is  drawn  through  a tank  containing  a hot  solution  of 
mineral-rubber  pipe  coating  and  wound  spirally  on  the  pipe,  the  burlap 
being  lapped  upon  itself  to  about  the  width  of  an  inch.  The  tension  of  the 
burlap  while  winding  is  sufficient  to  cause  it  to  lap  close  and  snug  on  the 
pipe,  without  straining  or  tearing  it. 


82 


Protective  Coatings 


The  wrapping  is  kept  back  from  the  ends  of  the  pipe  sufficiently  far  to 
clear  ,the  rivet  holes  and  not  interfere  with  the  making  of  the  field  joints. 
After  the  pipe  is  laid,  riveted,  caulked  and  tested,  the  field  joints  are 
wrapped  with  one  wind  of  the  burlap  which  has  been  immersed  in  field 
coating. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  installations  of  LOCK-BAR  Pipe  wrap- 
ped in  this  manner : 


City  of  Winnipeg 

42,256  ft.— 36" 

x K" 

“ “ Minneapolis 

10,000  ft.— 48" 

X T5" 

a a u u 

13,000  ft.— 48" 

x diff . 

a ((  u u 

16,000  ft.— 54" 

Y 5 rr 
X 16 

“ “ Montreal 

377  ft. — 36" 

“ “ Winnipeg 

24,000  ft.— 36" 

xr 

“ “ Rutland,  Vt 

631  ft.— 54" 

Y 5 " 
X 16 

Dill  '&  Collins 

733  ft.— 36" 

X W 

Brooklyn,  N.  Y 

5,000  ft.— 66" 

x M" 

thicknesses 

to 


83 


Protective  Coatings 

TABLE  OF  QUANTITIES 

The  following  Coating  tables  for  Cast  Iron  and  Steel  and  Wrought  Iron  Pipe  indicate 

that  the  former  require  more  Coating  per  square  foot  of  pipe  surface  than  either  Steel  or 

Wrought  Iron  Pipe,  due  mainly  to  the  irregular  surface  of  Cast  Iron  Pipe. 

CAST-IRON  PIPE 

Coated  Inside  and  Outside 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Running 

Coating 

Running 

Coating 

Feet 

per  100 

Feet 

per  100 

per  Ton 

Feet 

per  Ton 

Feet 

Kind  of  Pipe 

Cast  Iron 

Cast  Iron 

Cast  Iron 

Cast  Iron 

Thickness  of  Coating 

A" 

A" 

A" 

A" 

Diameter 

20" 

1096 

182 

548 

365 

24" 

908 

220 

454 

440 

30".  ..  

724 

270 

362 

539 

36" 

607 

329 

303 

659 

42" 

519 

385 

259 

771 

48".  

455 

440 

227 

879 

54" 

404 

495 

202 

990 

60" 

365 

548 

182 

1096 

72" 

302 

662 

151 

1324 

84" 

259 

772 

129 

1544 

TABLE  OF  QUANTITIES 

STEEL  AND  WROUGHT-IRON  PIPE 

Coated  Inside  and  Outside 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Running 

Coating 

Running 

Coating 

Feet 

per  100 

Feet 

per  100 

per  Ton 

Feet 

per  Ton 

Feet 

Kind  of  Pipe 

Steel 

Steel 

Steel 

Steel 

Thickness  of  Coating 

A" 

A" 

re" 

A" 

Diameter 

20" 

1164 

172 

582 

344 

24" 

969 

206 

484 

423 

30" 

774 

258 

387 

517 

36" 

645 

310 

322 

621 

42" 

553 

361 

276 

723 

48" 

484 

413 

242 

826 

54" 

430 

465 

215 

930 

60" 

387 

517 

193 

1034 

72" 

323 

619 

161 

1238 

84" 

276 

724 

138 

1449 

The  above  tables  have  been  made  from  the  figures  of  practical  experience  and  all 

allowances  have  been  made  for  waste  and  other  losses. 

These  figures  can  therefore  be  safely  taken  as  a basis  for  estimate  of  quantities  under  all 

ordinary  conditions. 

84 


Bibliography 

*BIBLIOGRAPHY  for  those  wishing  to  follow  up  the  discussion  of  the 

subject  regarding  the  relative  corrosion  of  iron  and  steel. 

Proceedings  of  Engineers’  Society  of  Western  Pennsylvania,  1907 

T.  N.  Thomson,  two  reports,  1908-1910  American  Society  of  Heating  and 
Ventilating  Engineers 

American  Society  for  Testing  Materials,  1906,  1908  (Howe) 

“Corrosion  of  Iron,”  A.  Sang  (McGraw-Hill  Publishing  Co.)  (Extensive 
bibliographs) 

“Corrosion  and  Preservation  of  Iron  and  Steel,”  A.  S.  Cushman  and  Hy.  A. 
Gardner  (McGraw-Hill  Publishing  Co.) 

“Metallurgy  of  Iron  and  Steel,”  Bradley  Stoughton 

“Electrolytic  Theory  of  the  Corrosion  of  Iron  and  its  Applications,”  Wm. 
H.  Walker  (Journal,  Iron  and  Steel  Institute,  1909) 

“Function  of  Oxygen  in  the  Corrosion  of  Metals,”  Wm.  H.  Walker  (Trans- 
actions American  Electrochemical  Society,  Vol.  14,  p.  175) 

“Corrosion  of  Iron  and  Steel,”  by  J.  N.  Friend,  1911  (Longmans,  Green 
and  Company) 

“Relative  Corrosion  of  Wrought-Iron  and  Steel,”  Henry  M.  Howe,  (Miner- 
al Industry,  V.  4,  p.  429) 

“Puddled  Iron  Versus  Steel,”  Frank  N.  Speller,  (Iron  Age,  V.  75,  p.  1666, 
1881) 

“Corrosion  of  Iron  and  Steel,”  Frank  N.  Speller,  (Iron  Age  V.  79,  p.  478) 
“Corrosion  of  Pipe  in  Coal  Mines”  (Iron  Age,  V.  78,  p.  80) 

“Steel  Plate  Pipe  Conduit  II — Rochester  Water  Works,  Rochester,  N.  Y. 
*National  Pipe  Standards 


85 


Cost  of  Pipe 


COST  OF  STEEL  PIPES 

Steel  pipe  is  generally  cheaper  than  cast-iron  pipe  in  sizes  of  24"  and 
upwards,  the  difference  in  cost  increasing  with  ascending  pressure  condi- 
tions. The  long  30  ft.  lengths  involve  less  field  joints  and  bell  holes  and  the 
fact  that  it  is  lighter  to  handle  and  transport,  makes  the  cost  of  installation 
considerably  cheaper  than  that  of  cast-iron  pipe. 

Consideration  should  also  be  given  to  the  fact  that  likewise  replacement 
and  repair,  costs  less  with  steel  pipe. 

The  usually  lower  cost  of  steel  pipe  over  cast-iron  and  other  classes  of 
pipe,  effects  an  initial  saving,  which,  together  with  the  interest  it  will  earn 
over  a period  of  years,  is  usually  enough  not  only  to  maintain  the  line  in 
proper  repair  for  life,  but  also  to  provide  a sinking  fund  which  will 
eventually  replace  it. 

Rochester,  N.  Y.  in  1873-4  laid  9.6  miles  of  36"  and  3 miles  of  24" 
W.  I.  pipe  yg"  thick  with  c.  i.  bell  and  spigot  lead  joints.  The  pipe 
is  still  in  continuous  service.  In  1893-4  the  city  laid  a second  conduit 
consisting  of  26Y  miles  of  38"  riveted  steel  pipe  Y"  to  Y"  thick.  Its 
condition  has  been  carefully  studied  by  the  City  Engineer’s  Department. 
Each  pit  hole  has  been  located.  They  are  all  from  the  outside,  due  to 
inefficient  coating.  Within  the  last  four  years  the  city  has  laid  about  19 
miles  (Conduit  No.  3)  of  37"  Lock-Bar  steel  pipe  Y"  thick  in  competition 
with  cast-iron.  With  improved  methods  of  coating,  effective  protection  is 
expected.  Even  after  a considerable  portion  of  Conduit  II  has  been  recoated 
on  the  outside,  the  conduit  is  considered  a more  economical  proposition 
than' Cast-Iron  would  have  been. 


86 


Failures  of  Pipe  Lines 


LEAKAGE  OF  LEADED  JOINTS 

American  Civil  Engineers’  Handbook  1911  (edited  by  Mansfield  Merri- 
man)  Page  956:  “It  is  impossible  to  keep  lead  joints  permanently  tight — 
the  expansion  and  contraction  from  temperature  changes  are  accompanied 
by  a slight  slipping  of  lead  at  each  joint — settlements  cause  movements  in 
the  joints.” 

Page  956: 

“With  well  tested  work  under  average  conditions  a leakage  of  3 gallons 
per  24  hours  per  lineal  foot  of  lead  joint  under  a pressure  of  100  lbs.  per 
square  inch  may  be  anticipated. 

W.  A.  McFarland,  Supt.  Washington,  D.  C.  2600  underground  leaks  in 
water  mains  found  by  him  prior  to  October  28th,  1911: 

Daily 

1373  service  pipe  leaks 13,669,000  Gals. 

607  main  joint  leaks 8,076,000  Gals. 

620  miscellaneous  leaks 5,520,000  Gals. 


2600  Leaks  27,265,000  Gals. 

Commissioner  Henry  S.  Thompson,  New  York  City,  placed  water  wasted 
by  leaks  in  the  streets  from  distribution  on  mains  third  in  the  list  of 
principal  water  wastes. 

T.  C.  Phillips,  testing  Chicago  water  mains  found  in  25.8  miles  of  streets 
5,243,000  gallons  per  day  flowing  away  from  defective  joints,  services, 
etc.  One  12”  main  leaked  1,638,000  gal.  per  day;  nearly  one-half  this 
quantity  in  one  block. 

The  leakage  at  the  joints  of  a steel  line  is  practically  nil,  whereas,  in  a 
cast-iron  line  employing  lead  joints,  each  connection  forms  a slip  joint, 
which  sooner  or  later  may  become  leaky.  Statistics  covering  twenty-two 
year’s  operation  of  a twenty-four  inch  line  at  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  show  that  of 
the  307  leaks  developed  during  that  period  297  were  leaks  at  the  lead  joints, 
each  one  of  which  had  to  be  repaired.  A steel  line  has  a riveted,  caulked  joint 
which  once  made  tight  remains  so.  A cast-iron  line  has  many  more  joints 
and  consequently  more  opportunities  to  leak  than  a steel  line  made  up  in 
thirty  foot  lengths. 

Three  miles  of  the  above  mentioned  line  at  Rochester  is  W.  I.  pipe.  Dur- 
ing 40  years  of  continuous  service,  but  two  leaks  have  been  discovered 
through  the  plate  and  both  of  these  were  on  the  same  sheet. 

During  the  same  period  10  leaks  were  discovered  through  as  many 
sheets  of  the  36"  W.  I.  Rochester  Conduit  I which  was  tq"  thick  and  9.6 
miles  long. 

CAST  IRON  PIPE  FAILURE 
Boston,  Mass. 

This  cast  iron  pine  line  was  laid  in  1896  and  was  known  as  Class  A Pipe 


87 


Failures  of  Pipe  Lines 


88 


Failures  of  Pipe  Lines 


1-16/100  inches  thickness  of  shell.  It  was  under  a pressure  of  from  90  to 
95  lbs.  and  was  42  inches  in  diameter.  The  length  that  failed,  as  may  be 
seen  from  the  illustration,  cracked  on  the  top  side,  the  crack  extending 
from  the  bell  end  to  within  one  foot  of  the  spigot  end,  where  it  turned  at 
right  angles  and  followed  the  circumference  of  the  pipe  about  three-fourths 
of  the  way  around. 

The  following  story  of  the  resulting  damages,  as  condensed  from  the 
Boston  Globe,  June  21,  1916  is  the  usual  familiar  one  accompanying  a 
severe  break.  When  a cast-iron  pipe  fails  it  goes  all  at  once  and  the  result- 
ing damage  is  therefore  severe.  Steel  Pipe  on  the  other  hand,  does  not 
subject  life  and  property  to  danger;  the  worst  that  may  happen  is  a small 
leak,  quickly  and  easily  repaired. 

In  the  excitement  and  bustle  of  a mobilization  of  the  Militia,  and  at  the 
end  of  a season  of  rain,  which  has  not  been  equalled  in  local  weather  history, 
the  bursting  of  a 42-inch  water  main  in  Copley  sq.  early  this  morning,  cut- 
ting off  the  water  supply  for  the  entire  downtown  business  section  of  the  city, 
was  considered  by  those  who  witnessed  and  suffered  from  it,  as  only  a trifle 
because  the  thousands  of  gallons  of  water  which  w'as  wasted  can  easily  be 
spared,  although  it  made  a real  island  of  that  section  of  the  city  and  did 
considerable  damage  by  filling  cellars. 

Copley  Sq.  Green  was  completely  surrounded  by  swift  running  waters 
two  feet  deep  from  6 to  8 a.m.  It  flowed  in  a torrent  down  Blagden  St.  by 
the  south  end  of  the  magnificent  Public  Library  Building,  through  Dart- 
mouth St.  in  front  of  and  along  Boylston  St.  beside  it.  The  flood  raced 
from  the  railroad  bridge  on  Dartmouth  St.  across  to  Newbury  St.,  then 
along  Huntington  Av.  from  the  incline  in  front  of  Hotel  Nottingham  Build- 
ing back  almost  to  Berkeley  St.,  through  Clarendon  St.  from  Boylston  St. 
to  the  railroad  and  along  Boylston  St.  from  Clarendon  to  Exeter  St. 

The  greatest  water  damage  discovered  early  this  morning  was  apparent- 
ly done  to  the  basement  of  the  Hotel  Westminster,  into  which  ran  500  or 
600  gallons  that  drenched  the  Winter  garden,  the  engine  and  boiler  rooms 
and  other  basement  rooms. 

The  cellar  of  the  S.  S.  Pierce  Building  at  the  corner  of  Dartmouth  St 
and  Huntington  Av.  was  also  flooded,  and  considerable  loss  in  the  perish- 
able stock  resulted. 

The  Public  Library  cellar  also  was  invaded  by  the  swift-running  water 
and  the  engineer  was  obliged  to  haul  his  fires  as  a precautionary  measure. 

The  Copley-Plaza  Hotel  was  completely  isolated  as  if  it  were  on  an 
island,  no  appreciable  damage  was  done  there  because  the  corps  of  porters 
succeeded  in  keeping  the  water  out  of  the  cellar  by  fighting  it  baek  at  the 
curbing  with  brooms. 


89 


90 


Failures  of  Pipe  Lines 


The  cellar  of  the  old  Nottingham  Hotel,  which  is  being  remodeled,  was 
filled  with  water,  but  no  great  damage  appeared  to  have  been  done  for 
there  was  nothing  there  to  be  damaged. 

At  5:50  A.  M.  the  water  burst  forth  in  a column  a dozen  feet  in  diameter, 
and  rising  nearly  15  feet  in  the  air,  with  tons  of  earth  and  stones  upon  its 
crest.  The  column  of  water  was  accompanied  by  a powerful  odor  of  escaping 
illuminating  gas,  which  caused  some  to  fear  that  a gas  main  also  was  broken. 

The  police  notified  owners  of  large  buildings  downtown  to  draw  the 
fires  under  their  boilers  as  the  water  supply  would  be  cut  off  for  hours  and 
this  step  had  to  be  taken  to  prevent  boiler  explosions. 

The  exact  location  of  the  break  in  the  water  main  was  on  Dartmouth 
St.  a few  feet  from  the  front  southerly  corner  of  the  Public  Library  Building, 
on  a direct  line  to  the  corner  of  the  Copley-Plaza  Hotel,  which  is  made  by 
the  junction  of  Dartmouth  St.  and  Huntington  Av. 

Within  five  minutes  the  guests  of  the  Copley-Plaza  and  the  Hotel 
Westminster  were  up  and  dressed  and  gazing  from  all  the  windows  at  the 
flood  and  some  anxiously  asked  the  hotel  clerks  if  it  would  be  necessary  for 
them  to  vacate  in  haste.  All  early  rising  guests  at  once  discovered  some- 
thing was  wrong  for  the  water  supply  in  the  hotels  had  been  automatically 
cut  off. 

Firemen  and  watchmen  in  many  large  buildings  in  the  city  instantly 
noticed  that  the  water  supply  had  vanished  and  all  made  instant  inquiries, 
and  then  took  necessary  precautions.  Some  banked  and  others  drew  their 
fires  or  utilized  auxiliary  supplies  provided  for  just  such  emergencies. 

In  racing  along  Blagden  St.  the  torrent  filled  the  catch  basins,  which 
backed  up  all  over  the  neighborhood  and  also  began  bubbling  small  founts, 
which  contributed  some  debris  to  the  flood. 

A street  car  which  came  in  town  along  Huntington  Av.  became  wedged 
in  the  mud  and  stones  which  covered  the  tracks.  Another  car  which  came 
along  later  was  hooked  on  to  the  stalled  one  and  hauled  it  to  a place  of 
safety.  All  cars  routed  for  the  vicinity  of  the  flooded  territory  were  di- 
verted through  other  streets  so  as  to  avoid  the  flood. 

Two  automobiles  were  stalled  in  the  water  which  came  up  to  their 
bodies  and  short  circuited  their  magnetos  and  put  them  out  of  commission. 
Other  autos  were  run  into  the  water  and  lines  were  made  fast  to  those  that 
were  crippled  and  they  were  hauled  out  by  emergency  cars,  which  kept  a 
safe  distance  from  the  deep  water. 

During  the  flood  the  streets  were  spotted  with  refuse  barrels,  large  waste 
paper  metal  boxes,  hokey  pokey  wagons  and  the  like  which  had  been 
swept  from  their  stands  by  the  swift  running  water  and  carried  on  the 
crest  of  the  torrent  hundreds  of  feet  distant. 


91 


Failures  of  Pipe  Lines 


92 


Failures  of  Pipe  Lines 


The  macadam  street  was  distorted  by  the  waters  which  had  raced  under 
it  and  the  surface  was  lifted  and  carried  out  of  place  to  the  curbings  and 
left  high  over  the  sidewalks  in  front  of  the  Library  Buildings. 

The  water  was  so  deep  and  ran  so  swiftly  that  horses  refused  to  try  to 

ford  it. 

All  street  car  service  in  the  vicinity  was  cut  off  two  and  a half  hours 
and  the  Elevated  Railway  operated  a jitney  line  between  Copley  sq.  and 
Massachusetts  Av. 

Burst  In  Largest  Main 

The  main  which  burst  is  the  largest  in  the  city.  It  is  a 42-inch  pipe, 
which  extends  from  the  Fisher  Hill  reservoir  in  Brookline  through  Hunting- 
ton  Av.  to  Boston  Common,  where  its  supply  is  diverted  into  the  smaller 
mains  that  reach  out  in  all  directions,  carrying  the  supply  to  the  entire  city. 

It  was  hours  before  those  in  the  residential  districts  as  far  away  as 
Dorchester  and  Roxbury  could  understand  why  water  would  not  flow  from 
their  faucets  and  the  plumbers  were  rushed  to  death  with  hurry  calls  from 
alarmed  householders. 

“The  pipe  was  laid  in  1896  and  is  the  main  supply  for  the  high-service 
district  in  the  city  proper,  the  district  being  bounded  approximately  by 
Charles  and  Kneeland  Sts.,  Atlantic  Av.,  Clinton,  Blackstone,  Merrimac, 
Chardon  and  Cambridge  Sts.  This  main  connects  directly  to  Fisher  Hill 
Reservoir  and  there  is  a normal  pressure  of  from  90  to  95  pounds.  A 
section  of  pipe  10  feet  in  length  and  practically  one-half  of  its  diameter  was 
found  blown  out  or  pushed  away  about  1 Yi  feet  from  the  remainder  of  the 
pipe  and  the  bell  end  of  the  section  broken. 

“The  records  of  the  Venturi  meters  on  the  high  service  system  show 
that  there  was  an  increased  consumption  between  5.40  a.m.  and  7.20  a.m. 
at  the  rate  of  40,000,000  gallons  per  24  hours  over  the  normal  rate  at  this 
time  of  day,  so  that  the  water  was  wasting  through  this  defect  at  the  rate 
of  1,670,000  gallons  per  hour.” 


93 


94 


Testimony 


95 


Testimony 


96 


Testimony 


THE  DENVER  UNION  WATER  COMPANY 

DENVER,  COLORADO 

« 

August  23,  1912 

The  East  Jersey  Pipe  Company, 

50  Church  St.,  New  York,  N.  Y. 

Gentlemen 

In  reply  to  your  letter  of  August  20th,  we  beg  to  state  that  none  of 
our  steel  pipe  burst  during  the  flood  referred  to  in  the  newspaper  clip- 
ping. We  had  several  breaks  in  cast  iron  pipes  crossing  Cherry  Creek, 
which  stream  was  the  one  in  flood  at  that  period. 

The  Lock-Bar  Steel  Pipe  crossing  Dry  Creek,  which  was  also  in  flood 
at  about  that  time,  was  subjected  to  a very  severe  test,  and  I am  enclosing 
you  herewith  photograph  showing  the  wreckage  lodged  against  the  Lock- 
Bar  pipe  which  we  purchased  from  you  a few  years  ago,  which  pipe  is 
located  in  the  conduit,  designated  by  our  Company  as  Conduit  No.  6. 

We  are  also  enclosing  you  photographs  showing  the  construction  of  the 
60"  Lock-Bar  pipe,  crossing  the  South  Platte  River,  which  will  explain 
themselves. 

Yours  very  truly, 

(Sgd.)  D.  G.  Thomas, 

Chief  Engineer. 


98 


Fig.  56—48-INCH  RIVETED  STEEL  CONDUITS,  CITY  OF  NEWARK,  N.  J. 

Shows  the  same  conduits  near  Macopin  Intake,  where  the  Pequannock  River  was  diverted  when  pipes  were  laid,  and 
the  pipes  were  placed  in  the  old  river  bed.  The  flood  broke  the  bank  of  the  new  course,  and  the  water  washed  all  the  earth 
from  the  pipes,  which  withstood  the  force  of  the  torrent,  although  exposed  for  over  50  feet. 


Testimony 


EXTRACT  FROM  THE  MINUTES  OF  THE  BOARD  OF  STREET 
AND  WATER  COMMISSIONERS  OF  THE  CITY  OF 
NEWARK,  N.  J.,  AT  ITS  MEETING,  OCTOBER 
13th,  1903. 

Engineer  M.  R.  Sherrerd,  of  the  Water  Department,  reported  regarding 
the  extent  of  the  damages  caused  by  the  flood  at  the  Pequannock  watershed 
and  along  the  Newark  Pipe  Lines  in  the  Passaic  Valley.  The  most  threat- 
ening danger  to  the  pipe  lines  occurred  about  a mile  and  a half  below  the 
Macopin  Intake,  where  the  two  lines  of  48-inch  riveted  steel  pipe  were  left 
suspended  in  the  air  for  a distance  of  about  35  feet,  caused  by  the  washing 
out  of  the  lower  portion  of  one  of  the  abutments  to  a culvert  under  the  pipe 

(lines.  The  waterwajr  of  this  culvert,  about  10  x 14  feet,  ordinarily  sufficient 
to  take  the  flood  flow  of  a small  mountain  stream  passing  under  the  pipes 
at  this  point,  became  blocked  with  trees  which  were  uprooted  by  the  torrent 
caused  by  the  breaking  of  a dam  on  a small  pond  on  this  stream.  Not  only 
were  these  trees,  some  thirty  in  number,  washed  down  the  steep  side  hill 
and  piled  on  the  pipes,  but  the  masonry  of  the  upper  portion  of  the  abutment 
was  also  resting  across  the  two  pipes  where  the  washout  occurred.  One 
line  showed  a slight  weeping,  while  the  other,  apparently,  was  not  in  any 
way  affected.  Both  lines  at  the  time  were  carrying,  approximately,  their  full 
capacity,  and  the  weight  of  the  water  in  the  pipes,  without  the  superim- 
posed load,  would  have  been  sufficient  to  have  broken  cast-iron  pipe. 

The  engineer  stated  that  the  results  of  the  flood  showed  conclusively 
the  necessity  of  the  new  storage  reservoir,  with  its  ample  capacity  of  700 
million  gallons  and  its  seven  miles  of  independent  60-inch  steel  pipe  line, 
which  are  now  being  constructed,  as  well  as  the  advantages  of  the  use  of  steel 
pipe  lines  for  these  long  conduits  over  cast-iron,  as  the  latter  would  not  have 
withstood  the  washouts  in  the  manner  the  steel  pipes  proved  able  to  do. 


99 


Testimony 


Fig.  58 

Photographs  taken  in  1918  of  test  cuts  made  to  determine  the  condition  of  a 10  mile.  60  in, 
riveted  steel  pipe  line  laid  for  the  city  of  Allegheny,  (now  part  of  Pittsburgh,  Pa.)  in  1895  by  T.  A. 
Gillespie  Oo.  The  letters  reproduced  on  the  two  following  pages  tell  their  own  stories. 


100 


Testimony 


AN  EXPERIENCE  IN  CANADA 

In  the  February  26,  1914  issue  of  The  Canadian  Engineer,  published  at 
Toronto,  Ont.,  Can.  appears  a description  of  the  reclamation  of  a 40"  steel 
pipe  line  laid  over  a quarter  of  a century  previous  to  that  date  in  the 
Ottawa  River. 

From  this  article  the  following  significant  paragraphs  are  reprinted. 

“The  pipe  was  then  disconnected  and  each  length  of  about  45  ft.  was 
tested.  The  old  cast-iron  flanges  were  then  cut  off  and  the  rivets  and  seams 
caulked  where  necessary." 

After  this  had  been  done  the  pipes  were  placed  in  the  desired  align- 
ment and  riveted  together  by  means  of  steel  sleeves,  so  as  to  form  one 

continuous  pipe  from  the  pump-house  giving  an  approximate 

length  of  200  ft." 

“Then  curved  flanges  were  riveted  on  each  end  and  the  pipes  tested  to 
a pressure  equal  to  twice  the  working  head." 

“In  the  old  pipe,  cast-iron  ball  joints  were  used,  but,  not  being  found 
satisfactory , have  been  discarded  altogether,  and  special  angle  pieces  are 
being  used  instead." 

Considering  the  length  of  time  these  pipes  were  in  the  river,  their 
condition  was  marked  in  that  there  was  practically  no  corrosion." 


101 


Testimony 


City  of  Pittsburgh 


Penn  sylvan lv 


Department  or  Public  Works 

John  Swan 


March  26th,  1919 


A.  Gillespie  Company, 

Pittsburgh,  penna. 


Gentlemen : 


Relative  to  your  inquiry  as  to  our  experience  with  steel 


pipe,  beg  to  inform  you  that  the  former  City  of  Allegheny,  now  a part 
of  the  City  of  Pittsburgh,  laid  a 60  inch  steel  line  from  the  City  to 
Montrose  Pumping  Station,  a distance  of  about  ten  miles  in  1895.  In 
1918,  we  had  occasion  to  lift  about  40  ft.  of  this  line  to  put  in  some 
gates  and  connections.  We  found  that  upon  moving  two  sections  of  this 
60  inch  line,  it  was  practically  in  perfect  condition.  Tests  which  were 
made  for  corrosion  and  weight  showed  that  the- steel  had  lost  comparative- 
ly nothing  in  this  length  of  time.  From  all  appear onces , I would  judge 
that  this  line  was  good  for  at  least  £5  years  more. 


Yours  very  tmlv. 


Testimony 


City  of  Pittsburgh 


Pennsylvania 

DEPARTMENT  OF  PUBLIC  WORKS 
BUREAU  OF  WATER 

CHAS.  A FINLEY,  manac.no  Engineer 

File  1801  - 2. 


March  26,  1919 


The  T.  A.  Gillespie  Co., 

Pittsburgh,  Pa ana. 

Gentlemen: 

In  ilurch  1914,  the  City  had  occasion  to  mare  three  (3)  24"  pres- 
sure connections  with  the  60"  stoel  pipe  line  which  was  laid 
about  1696,  iron,  Idontrose  Pumping  Station  to  the  old  Trpy  Hill 
Reservoir,  a distance  of  ubout  ten  miles.  Throe  (s)  24"  cuts 
ware  made  in  tne  side  of  the  steel  pipe  and  the  condition  of 
the  pipe  carefully  noted.  The  original  thickness  of  the  rlato 
is  recorded  as  one-half  inch.  The  cuts,  upon  careful  measure- 
ment, still  show  the  full  original  thickness.  V.'e  .vere  unable 
to  demonstrate  any  appreciable  ueterioration  in  the  pipe  during 
the  twenty-years  that  it  was  in  service. 

In  1916,  it  again  became  necessary  to  cut  the  same  line  at. the 
Filtration  Plant,  this  .*ork  being  cone  with  an  acetylene  torch. 
The  pipe  ..as  found  to  be  in  good  condition  and  eno.ved  no  appre- 
ciable loss  of  metal  due  to  tne  twenty  four  years  of  service. 

The  condition  in  .naic n this  pipe  »«as  found,  Mould  indicate  that 
it  Was  entitled  to  credit  for  much  longer  service  than  it  has 
been  customary  to  grant  to  this  type  of  steel. 

About  the  time  this  pipe  .v»s  laid,  if  I remember  correctly, 
it  a as  very  strongly  contended  that  this  pipe  would  only  be 
good  for  about  thirty  years.  It  nas  now  been  in  service 
twenty-four  years  and  the  condition  of  the  pipe  indicates 
that  its  possible  life  was  under-estimated. 


I am  enclosing  pnotographa. 


103 


CHARLES  N.  CHADWICK 
L J O’REILLY 


TMA00EU6  MERRIMAN 


Testimony 


BOARD  OF  WATER  SUPPLY 

CITY  OF  NEW  YORK 

ENGINEERING  BUREAU 
MUNICIPAL  BUILDING 


Subject:  loc jy oar. p_l£fl. 


NEW  YORK,  February  24,  1920 


Mr.  H.  Seavar  Jonea, 

Vice  President,  Bast  Jersey  Pipe  Company, 
50  Church  Street,  New  York. 

Dear  Sirs 


In  response  to  your  inquiry  regarding  the  superiority  of  lock- oar 
pipe,  I beg  to  submit  the  following. 

In  this  vicinity  there  is  a strong  preference  for  lock-bar  pipe  for 
all  sizes  to  which  it  is  adaptable.  The  East  Jersey  Water  Company,  the  largest 
user  of  steel  pipe  in  the  East  and  which  has  laid  several  hundred  miles,  has 
not,  since  the  perfection  of  the  look  oar,  used  any  other  type.  Its  particular 
advantages  are: 

1.  Additional  strength  for  the  same  thickness  of  pipe. 

2.  Superior  hydraulic  qualities,  due  to  the  elimination  of  75“2 
of  the  circular  riveted  joints  and  one  riveted  longitudinal 
seam  and  the  ability  to  produce  a smoother  coating. 

The  amount  of  gain  in  carrying  capacity  is  largely  a Latter  of  Judg- 
ment, for  so  far  as  I know,  there  have  been  no  reliable  experiments  of  capacity 
of  riveted  and  lock- oar  pipe  of  the  same  age  under  comparable  conditions. 

That  the  gain  in  capacity  is  considerable  Is  unquestionable.  Ey  own 
judgment  is  that  it  might  easily  reach  15 % as  the  smoothness  of  coating  in  it- 
self conduces  to  a higher  coefficient.  The  little  coughneaseB  in  riveted  pipe, 
such  as  are  caused  in  the  dipping  and  draining  of  the  pipe  by  the  presence  of  the 
rivets,  to  which  the  coating  is  apt  to  adhere  and  drip  during  the  draining  process, 
together  with,  tho  rivets  and  seam6,  increase  the  friction  more  than  is  supposed. 

The  lock- oar  pipe  was  used  on  the  Catskill  work  wherever  it  was  applicable , 
such  as  some  of  the  main  delivery  lines  within  the  city.  In  the  light  of  present  ex- 
perience,  one  would  hardly  consider  the  use  of  riveted  pipe  if  lock  bar  could  be  securec 


As  to  the  life  of  steel  pipe,  in  broad  terms  a pipe  protected  with  the  oest 
type  of  coating  and  well  laid  should  last  upwards  of  50  years.  This  estimate  is  based 
on  knowledge  of  lines  built  in  the  East,  where  the  coating  was  inferior  to  that  now 
available  and  which  have  oeen  in  operation  over  20  years  and  seem  to  oe  good  for  an 
indefinite  period.  Also  lines  in  California  have  oeen  in  operation  around  40  years 
and  where  examination  has  been  made  show  only  a slight  deterioration.  The  engineers 
of  the  Board  of  Water  Supply  had  confidence  enough  in  steel  pipe  to  lay  it  in  the 
streets,  believing  that  it  would  conv-are  very  favorably  in  its  life  with  cast-iron  pipe. 


Very 


truly  yours 


Chief  Engineer 


104 


SI-  °>P  STe/:  Sftun  340* 


& r<W.&/,r/en 

sw.  sim.  o%c.  e sir.  sim.  <&,.  s/r.o?. 

&tt.  Sim.  °)PaUr  tyPorL  Sls*n. 
don  Ju /tiny  (Engineer. 

6 10-&/-/- S$Iel<p,  (cS$/inneay>o/is,  QE/ft/inn.  DeC«  29,  IS  11 
TO  WHOM  IT  MAT  CONCERN: 

I beg,  to  herewith  submit  my  experience  with  riveted  steel  pipe. 

lines^o^tirCity1  iIimie^C)lis  1 ^ occasion  in  1397  to  build  two  large  pipe 

Alter  a thorough  investigation  I was  convinced  that  steel  pipe  would  in  eve— 
«as  satisfy  the  existing  conditions,  but  to  please  the  advocates  c*  Ca3t-iron 
bids  ..ere  received  lor  both  steel  and  cast-iron  pipes.  The  steel  was  fifty  * 
incnes  in  aiameter,  the  cast  iron  pipe  forty-eight  inches;  Maxima  pressure 
12o  pounds  per  square  inch;  Total  length  of  pipe  33,  GOC  feet,  of  which  1 5CC 
feet  «ere  submerged,  crossing  the  Mississippi  River. 


Lowest  Cast-iron  bid 
Lowest  steel  pipe  bid 


$477,  500.  CO 
343,726.00 


On  June  13,1697,  contract  for  steel  pipe  was  awarded  to  the  T. A.Gillespie 
oaipany  of  Pittsburgn  and  the  entire  Job  finished  November  9th  of  the  suite 
l9**  “ u^03t  r^rxaole  record  - ana  I cannot  too  highly  recommend  the 
T.  A.  Gillespie  Company  for  doing  splenaid  .»ork  in  every  respect. 

I nave  several  times  had  occasion-  to  examine  tr.is  pipe  line  ; ersonally 
botn  inside  and  outside,  and  found  the  coatin^  Just  as  ^coa  as  new.  * 

The  coating  used  was  the  so-called  Rubber  Aspholtum,  manufactured  by  the 
Assyrian  Asphalt  Company  of  Chicago,  now  the  American  Asphaltum  1 Rubber 
Company  of  Chicago.  I determined  the  use  of  this  particular  coating  af- 
ter exhaustive  tests  and  experiments. 

We  have  never  had  a leak  on  the  entire  line  since  the  tfater  was  turned 
on,  fourteen  years  ago.  We  have  on  the  other  hand  a constant  trouble 
with  submerged  cast  iron  line  of  which  we  have  three  across  the  Mississippi, 

I have  also  been  connected  tfitn  the  6 to  3 miles  long  42  inch  steel  pipe 
lines  for  Seattle,  Washington  Water  Works,  with  entirely  satisfactory  re- 
sulte.  I have  also  put  in  steel  intakes  on  very  exposed  places  on  Lake 
Superior.  The  steel  mains  stood  the  racket,  but  the  cast  iron  specials 
in  connection  with  the  work  did  not. 

# 

Taxing  tne  saving  and  everything  else  into  consideration,  I recommend 
large  steel  pipe  instead  of  cast  iron  pipe.  Of  course  with  the  .revise 
mat  the  steel  pipe  is  properly  designed, manufactured  and  laid. 


Respectfully, 


105 


Testimony 


WATER  DEPARTMENT 

Office  of  the  Chief  Engineer 

WILMINGTON,  DEL. 


Mr.  T.  A.  Gillespie, 
New  York,  N.  Y. 


April  8,  1907 


Dear  Sir: 

When  the  duty  devolved  upon  us  to  decide  on  the  class  of  pipe  to  be  used  for  the  mains 
for  the  extension  of  the  water  supply  system  of  this  city,  the  first  question  was  as  to  the 
relative  merits  of  steel  and  cast-iron,  and  this  was  decided  purely  on  economic  grounds,  the 
saving  to  the  city  by  the  adoption  of  steel  pipe  being  approximately  $40,000  or  25%  of  the 
cost  of  cast-iron  pipe. 

The  second  question  was  to  decide  betwreen  the  ordinary  riveted  and  the  lock-bar  pipe. 
At  that  time  the  lock  bar  pipe  was  an  innovation  in  this  country,  and  there  being  no  pre- 
cedent to  follow,  it  was  necessary  to  arrive  at  a conclusion  based  solely  on  our  own  judg- 
ment of  the  mechanical  merits  of  the  lock-bar  as  a serviceable  joint,  as  compared  with  the 
usual  longitudinal  riveted  joint,  having  in  mind  the  unbroken  interior  surface  presented  by 
the  lock-bar  pipe,  with  the  consequent  reduction  in  friction,  and  for  your  satisfaction  I am 
presenting  herein  the  reasons  which  actuated  the  final  decision  to  adopt  lock-bar  pipe, 
apart  from  any  slight  difference  in  cost  between  it  and  riveted  pipe. 

It  is  an  established  fact  that  a riveted  joint,  such  as  is  usually  presented  in  the  all-riveted 
pipe,  under  most  favorable  conditions  will  not  develop  over  eighty  per  cent  of  the  tensile 
strength  of  the  plate,  and  in  consequence  of  this  it  becomes  necessary  to  use  a plate  25  per 
cent  thicker  than  would  otherwise  be  required  to  overcome  the  weakness  of  the  joint.  A 
satisfactory  series  of  tests  having  established  the  fact  that  the  lock-bar  pipe,  when  properly  , 
proportioned,  will  produce  a joint  as  strong  as  the  plate  itself,  it  becomes  apparent  that  by 
utilizing  this  style  of  joint,  one  of  two  results  is  obtained:  either  a plate  25  per  cent  thinner 
than  for  riveted  pipe  may  be  used,  or  if  the  same  thickness  of  metal  is  retained,  25  per  cent 
greater  strength  is  obtained.  Whichever  way  it  may  be  taken,  there  is  a gain  in  this  point 
of  25  per  cent  in  favor  of  the  lock-bar  joint.  Assuming  that  in  the  average  pipe  themstal 
represents  one  half  of  the  final  cost  of  the  pipe,  the  economic  advantages  would,  therefore, 
be  12^  per  cent  in  favor  of  the  lock-bar  pipe. 

Regarding  the  relative  carrying  capacity  of  the  lock-bar  pipe  with  its  continuously  regu- 
lar inside  surface,  and  the  ordinary  riveted  pipe  with  inner  and  outer  sheet  forming  a break 
in  the  continuity  of  the  surface  every  seven  feet,  it  becomes  self  evident  that  the  frictional 
resistance  of  the  latter  will  be  largely  in  excess,  and  inversely  the  velocity  and  carrying 
capacity  of  the  lock-bar  pipe  proportionately  greater.  There  is  no  data  extant  at  this  time  t 
to  demonstrate  conclusively  the  actual  difference  in  velocity  of  flow  between  these  two 
forms  of  pipe,  but  in  an  endeavor  to  reach  a fair  conception  of  this  difference,  it  has  been 
assumed  that  a variation  of  .001  in  the  co-efficient  of  the  Kutter  formula  would  probably 
result  in  as  close  an  approximation  as  circumstances  would  warrant.  Based  on  this  as- 
sumption, the  capacity  of  the  lock-bar  pipe,  48  inches  in  diameter,  would  be 8 ^percent 
greater  than  a riveted  pipe  of  the  same  diameter.  Other  sizes  would  vary  proportionately. 

As  a resume,  therefore,  it  may  be  stated  that  the  lock-bar  pipe  possesses  two  points  of 
marked  supremacy  over  riveted  pipe,  first,  an  advantage  of  12  ^ per  cent  in  the  value  of  the 
pipe  due  to  its  increased  strength,  and  second,  8}4  per  cent  on  account  of  greater  capacity, 
a total  of  21  per  cent  to  the  credit  of  the  lock-bar  pipe. 

These  deductions  may  be  open  to  some  alterations  due  to  conditions;  cost  of  manufact- 
ure; size  of  pipe,  and  some  other  minor  points,  although  in  general  they  may  be  accepted 
as  fair.  But  making  due  allowance  for  some  such  criticism  it  may  be  stated  broadly  that 
the  net  value  of  the  lock  -bar  pipe  is  from  15  to  20  per  cent  greater  than  riveted  pipe  of  the 
same  diameter  and  thickness. 

Respectfully, 

(Signed)  THEODORE  A.  LEI  SEN 


106 


Testimony 


BUREAU  OF  WATER 

PHILADELPHIA,  PA. 

August,  7,  1908 

East  Jersey  Pipe  Company, 

New  York  City. 

Dear  Sirs: 

Complying  with  your  request  for  an  expression  of  my  opinion  of  the 
strength,  carrying  capacity  and  durability  of  Lock-Bar  Steel  Pipe  corn* 
pared  with  riveted  steel  pipe,  I would  say  that  the  City  of  Philadelphia 
has  completed  the  installation  of  some  54,000  feet  of  48-inch  and  36  inch 
Lock-Bar  Steel  Pipe,  which  was  laid  under  most  adverse  circumstances, 
and  I believe  this  pipe  to  be  from  twenty  to  thirty  per  cent  stronger  than 
double  riveted  pipe  made  of  the  same  thickness  of  plate,  because  double 
riveted  joints,  such  as  are  generally  used  in  the  manufacture  of  riveted 
steel  pipe,  have  from  twenty  to  thirty  per  cent  less  tensile  strength  than 
the  plates  thus  joined,  while  tests  have  shown  Lock-Bar  joints,  when  pro- 
perly made,  to  have  strength  equal  to  the  plates  themselves. 

The  carrying  capacity  of  Lock-Bar  Steel  Pipe  is  probably  ten  to  twelve 
per  cent  greater  than  that  of  the  ordinary  in  and  out  or  taper  sheet, 
riveted  pipe.  As  far  as  I know  there  have  been  no  tests  made  to  deter- 
mine this  point,  but  in  my  opinion,  the  continuously  regular  inside  surface 
of  the  Lock-Bar  Pipe,  with  circular  joints  thirty  feet  apart,  will  produce 
no  greater  frictional  resistance  than  well  coated  cast  iron  pipe  with  joints 
every  twelve  feet. 

The  natural  life  of  Lock-Bar  Steel  Pipe  is  undoubtedly  greater  than 
that  of  ordinary  riveted  steel  pipe  similarly  coated  because  it  is  made  with 
smooth,  continuous  inside  surface,  with  circular  joints  at  thirty  feet  inter- 
vals only  and  few  projecting  rivets,  while  riveted  steel  pipe  has  circular 
joints  at  least  every  seven  and  one-half  feet  and  many  projecting  rivets, 
and  at  each  the  coating,  which  prolongs  the  life  of  steel,  is  more  easily  torn 
or  worn  off,  thus  exposing  the  bare  metal  to  corrosive  action,  and  further 
on  account  of  the  fewer  number  of  joints  'and  fewer  rivets  the  leakage  of 
the  Lock-Bar  Steel  Pipe  is  less  than  that  of  the  ordinary  riveted  steel  pipe. 

Yours  very  truly, 

(Signed)  F.  C.  DUNLAP, 

Chief  of  Bureau. 


107 


Testimony 


KANSAS  NATURAL  GAS  COMPANY 
FARMERS  BANK  BUILDING 
Pittsburgh,  Pa. 

December  19,  1911 

T.  A.  Gillespie,  President, 

The  T.  A.  Gillespie  Company, 

71  Broadway,  New  York. 

Dear  Sir: 

In  the  year  1901,  while  general  manager  of  the  Philadelphia 
Company  of  this  city,  I lifted  some  twelve  miles  of  36  inch  riveted 
steel  pipe  laid  by  you  for  that  company  about  the  year  1886-1887, 
from  the  Murrays ville  Field  to  Pittsburg.  I found  this  pipe  in  per- 
fect condition;  in  fact,  the  mill  bloom  was  scarcely  off  the  iron  in  many 
places,  and  not  a joint  of  it  was  lost  or  a patch  used  in  relaying. 
None  of  the  lateral  seams  required  caulking.  This  line  had  expan- 
sion joints  (a  device  of  your  own)  about  every  175  feet,  that  is 
the  most  perfect  working  expansion  joint  that.  I ever  had  any  ex- 
perience with.  The  line  has  been  in  successful  operation  under  a 
pressure  of  from  65  lbs.  to  100  lbs.,  has  never  given  any  trouble, 
and  is  a perfect  line  today,  seemingly  as  perfect  as  when  first  laid. 

I have  knowledge  of  other  steel  lines  of  smaller  size  that 
have  been  in  good  service  from  fifteen  to  twenty  years,  and  are 
apparently  in  as  good  condition  today  as  when  first  laid. 

Yours  very  truly, 

(Signed)  J.  C.  McDOWELL 


108 


Testimony 


MORRIS  R.SHERRERO, 


•1ES  C.  HALLOCK, 


Srpartmrnt  uf  thiblir  IBorka 

BOARD  OF  STREET  AND  WATER  COMMISSIONERS, 
NEWARK,  N.  J. 

City  Haul.  ;£eCa  35th,  1511 


T.  A.  Gillespie  Company 
50  Church  Street, 

He*  York  City,  N.  Y. 


Gentlemen: 

Replying  to  your  inquiry  in  regard  to  the  condition  0 f 
the  steel  p ipe  lines  wnich  your  company  laid  in  connection  with  the 
new  water  supply  lor  the  City  of  Newark,  I would  advise  you  that 
tne  first  line,  laid  in  1591,  consisting  of  21  aides  of .45  inch  and 
5 axles  of  56  incn  rivet ted  steel  *ipe,  and  the  second  line,  laid 
in  1596,  consisting  of  5 ax  lee  of  45  inch  and  16  miles  of  42  inch 
rivetted  steel  pipe,  ana  the  third  line,  laid  in  1904,  7 miles  of 
60  inch  rivetted  steel  pipe,  have  all  given  very  satisfactory  ser- 
vice, and  have  been  in  continuous  use  since  laid.  The  only  serious 
difficulty  .ve  nave  had  with  any  of  the  lines  was  at  one  spot,  where 
for  a distance  of  about  1200  feet,  two  lines  of  pipe  ware  laid 
through  a peat  swamp,  the  soil  of  which  was  of  a peculiar  nature 
ana  was  back-filled  directly  against  the  pipe.  , Electrolytic  ac- 
tion has  taken  place  at  this  point  dither  from  stray  currents  from 
tne  trolleys,  or  from  local  action  in  the  soil.  We  .vara  able  to 
repair  'without  difficulty  slight  leaks  dn  this  section,  and  have 
filled  around  the  pipes  with  gravel.  The  trouble  happened  over 
a year  ago,  but  we  nave  not  been  bothered  since. • The  nature  of 
the  swamp  was  such  that  it  would  seem  very  probable  cast-iron 
pipe  would  also  be  affected  in  a serious  manner. 

You  will  remember  that  in  asking  for  bids  for  the 
60  inch  pipe  line  referred  to  above,  we  also  asked  for  bids  for 
cast  iron  pipe,  and  found  that  the  difference  in  cost  was  so  great 
that  we  could  have  renewed  the  steel  pipe  in  13  or  14  years  for 
the  difference,  and  that  our  decision  was  at  that  time  favorable 
to  steel  pipe. 

Considering  the  difference  in  first  cost,  I am  satis- 
fied that  it  has  been  of  advantage  to  us  to  lay  steel  pipe,  and 
that  it  would  generally  be  advantageous  to  use  this  class  of  ma- 
terial for  supply  pipe  lines  when  the  same  are  well  constructed 
and  teiven  a tenacious  asphalt  covering. 


Very  truiy^yours. 


YZ. 


w 

Cnief  Engineer 


109 


Toe  East  Jersey  Pipe  Co*, 

50  Church  Street, 

New  York  City,  N.  Y* 

Dear  Sirs:- 

Repiying  to  your  letter  asking  for  info rmat ion 
as  to  the  carrying  capacity  of  lock  bar  pipe,  we  beg  to  hand  you 
the  following. 

We  have  a line  approximately  36,000  feet  in  length 
and  are  pumping  into  this  at  the  rate  of  11,800  U.  S.  gallons  per 
minute  by  Venturi  Meter.  At  a point  13,000  feet  from  the  pump 
station  water  is  drawn  at  the  rate  of  2,  333  U.  S.  gallons  per 
minute,  also  measured  by  Venturi  Lister.  Readings  of  pressure 
,vere  taxen  with  Bristol  recording  pressure  gauges,  and  the  gauges 
tested  by  meane  of  a Croeby  gauge  tester  before  and  after  the  12 
hours  records*  Elevations  of  gauges  were  well  established. 

The  average  friction  loss  for  three  hours  while  conditions  were 
constant  in  the  whole  line  was  23.27  feet.  The  figure  given 
in  Coffins  tables  for  clean  cast-iron  pipes  under  the  above 
conditions  is  30.7  feet,  and,  in  our  experience  the  actual 
friction  loss  in  cast-iron  pipes  that  has  been  in  service  a 
few  years  is  about  5<$  higher  than  is  given  in  these  tables. 

Hence  we  estimate  that  if  this  line  were  laid  in  cat-iron, 
the  friction  would  be  at  least  45  feat  or  59. 2>  more  than 
the  observed  friction  in  our  steel  main.  The  first  section 
of  this  main,  12, 00C  feet,  was  laid  in  19C7  and  19C3  and 
the  balance  in  1909. 


Diet. WHS 


Yours  truly. 


MONTREAL  WATER  & °0WER  COMPANY 


'AsstT  Eng 


- 


110 


Preferences 


PREFERENCES  ACCORDED  LOCK-BAR  PIPE  IN  COMPETITION 
WITH  OTHER  TYPES. 

The  high  longitudinal  joint  efficiency  of  Lock-Bar  Pipe  permits  the 
safe  utilization  of  a given  thickness  of  plate  against  a higher  working  pres- 
sure than  would  be  possible  for  the  same  plate  thickness  if  incorporated 
in  a pipe  of  lower  joint  efficiency.  This  fact  is  usually  considered  by 
Engineers  and  is  instrumental  in  effecting  considerable  saving  in  plate 
tonnage,  particularly  in  long  supply  lines  where  a gradual  but  consistent 
increase  of  pressure  is  encountered. 

The  carrying  capacity  of  Lock-Bar  Pipe,  owing  to  the  smooth  interior 
unobstructed  by  rivets,  is  from  10%  to  15%  greater  than  that  of  riveted 
pipe.  This  means  that  in  order  to  carry  a given  volume  of  water  under 
s .milar  conditions  a riveted  pipe  must  be  of  greater  diameter  than  a Lock- 
Bar  Pipe. 

By  reason  of  these  features  Lock-Bar  Pipe  is  usually  given  prefer- 
ence for  strength  when  in  competition  with  welded  pipe  and  for  both 
strength  and  carrying  capacity  when  in  competition  with  riveted  pipe. 
In  some  instances  this  is  stipulated  as  a 10%  money  preference  in  price 
on  pipe  laid.  In  others  the  specifications  provide  that  riveted  pipe  shall 
be  of  larger  diameter  and  of  greater  plate  thickness  than  Lock-Bar  Pipe. 


Ill 


Testimony 


Some  Steel  Pipe  Lines  Manufactured  by  the  East  Jersey  Pipe  Company 


Year  Location  Kind  Size  in.  Length  ft. 


1891 

Newark,  N.  J 

Riveted 

48  and  36 

142,000 

1896 

Newark,  N.  J 

ci 

48  and  42 

126,000 

1897 

Paterson,  N.  J. 

“ 

42 

40,000 

1899 

Seattle,  Wash 

u 

42 

32,000 

1899 

Newark,  N.  J 

“ 

51 

47,500 

1900 

Utica,  N.  Y . . . 

“ 

96 

1,000 

1902 

Jersey  City,  N.  J . . 

72 

93,000 

1903 

Newark,  N.  J 

u 

60 

39,300 

1903 

Troy,  N.  Y 

“ 

33 

35,300 

1903 

Schenectady,  N.  Y 

u 

36 

24,000 

1904 

Astoria,  Long  Island 

ci 

60 

15,000 

1905 

Pittsburgh,  Pa 

Lock-Bar 

30 

2,500 

1905 

Paterson  , N.  J 

“ 

48  and  42 

11,000 

1905 

Lynchburg,  Ya 

CC 

30 

15,000 

1905 

Wilmington,  Del 

“ 

48  and  43 

20,000 

1906 

Brooklyn,  N.  Y 

Riveted 

72 

42,300 

1906 

Honolulu,  T.  H 

Lock-Bar 

30 

8,000 

1906 

Philadelphia,  Pa 

“ 

48  and  36 

55,300 

1907 

Gary,  Ind 

a 

36 

4,000 

1907 

Trenton,  N.  J.  . 

u 

48 

10,000 

1907 

Montreal,  P.  Q . . . 

ci 

36 

11,000 

1907 

Lockport,  N.  Y.  

Cl 

30 

68,500 

1907 

Vancouver,  B.  C 

ci 

22 

5,000 

1908 

Michigan  City,  Ind 

Cl 

30 

4,000 

1908 

Philadelphia,  Pa 

Riveted 

132 

3,180 

1908 

Montreal,  P.  Q 

Lock-Bar 

36 

25,000 

1908 

Springfield,  Mass 

54  and  42 

63,500 

1909 

Brooklyn,  N.  Y 

Cl 

72 

83,000 

1909 

Portland,  Ore 

ll 

48  to  24 

9,600 

1910 

Brooklyn,  N.  Y 

Cl 

48 

16,200 

1910 

Ensley,  Ala 

“ 

50 

8,840 

1910 

Pittsburgh,  Pa 

Cl 

24 

5,000 

1910 

Cuba 

Cl 

36  and  28 

1,300 

1910 

Washington,  D.  C 

Cl 

30 

1,220 

1910 

Seattle,  Wash 

Cl 

32 

4,050 

1910 

Seattle,  Wash 

Lock-Bar 

42  to  24 

12,300 

1910 

Portland,  Ore 

“ 

52  and  44 

128,000 

1910 

Butte,  Mont.  

“ 

42 

1,200 

1910 

New  York  City,  N.  Y 

Cl 

48  to  30 

1,200 

1910 

Catskill  Aqueduct,  N.  Y . . . . 

Riveted 

135,  117  and  114 

33,000 

1911 

Catskill  Aqueduct,  N.  Y . . . . 

Lock-Bar  and  Riv. 

66 

17,020 

1911 

Lakeland,  Fla 

Lock-Bar 

20 

4,020 

1911 

Pennsylvania  R.  R 

“ 

20 

7,770 

1911 

Massena,  N.  Y 

24 

1,320 

1911 

Seattle,  Wash 

“ 

42,  40,  36  and  24 

16,945 

1911 

Montreal,  P.  Q 

“ 

48,  36  and  30 

7,300 

1911 

Denver,  Colo 

Lock-Bar 

60 

1,200 

1911 

Marquette,  Mich 

66 

8,000 

1912 

Chihuahua,  Mexico 

Riveted 

102 

1,400 

1912 

Union  Bay,  B.  C 

Lock-Bar 

50 

1,320 

1912 

Rochester,  N.  Y 

“ 

66 

9,254 

1912 

Ottawa,  Ont 

“ 

42 

2,400 

1912 

Omaha,  Neb 

“ 

48 

10,550 

1912 

Akron,  Ohio 

“ 

36 

55,870 

1912 

Winnipeg,  Man 

“ 

36 

42,500 

1913 

Minneapolis,  Minn 

54,  50  and  48 

39,725 

112 


Testimony 


Year 

Location 

Kind 

Size  in.  Length  ft. 

1913 

Montclair,  N.  J 

Lock-Bar 

24 

7,295 

1913 

Massena,  N.  Y 

“ 

24 

1,200 

1913 

Utica,  N.  Y 

“ 

36 

1,000 

1913 

Wilkesbarre,  Pa 

36 

1,335 

1913 

Schenectady,  N.  Y 

U 

24 

2,420 

1913 

Kansas  City,  Mo 

Riveted 

48 

1,220 

1913 

Croghan,  N.  Y . 

“ 

114 

2,555 

1914 

Schenectady,  N.  Y 

Lock-Bar 

36 

10,500 

1914 

Essex  Junction,  Vt 

Lock-Bar  and  Riv. 

108  and  36 

2,440 

1914 

Rutland,  Vt 

u u u 

54 

2,750 

1914 

Winnipeg,  Man 

Lock-Bar 

36 

24,000 

1914 

Brooklyn,  N.  Y 

“ 

66 

12,200 

1914 

Rochester,  N.  Y 

U 

66  and  48 

1,120 

1915 

Minneapolis,  Minn 

Lock-Bar  and  Riv. 

40  and  48 

7,355 

1915 

Ottawa,  Ont 

Lock-Bar 

51 

15,000 

1916 

Seattle,  Wash 

“ 

42 

1,324 

1916 

Ottawa,  Ont 

U 

51 

1,945 

1916 

Minneapolis,  Minn 

Lock-Bar  and  Riv. 

40  and  48 

7,341 

1916 

Seattle,  Wash 

Lock-Bar 

42 

1,301 

1916 

Rochester,  N.  Y 

“ 

37 

50,754 

1916 

St.  Louis,  Mo 

u 

36 

26,700 

1916 

Brandon,  Vt. 

“ 

36 

2,344 

1916 

Gary,  Ind 

u 

36 

1,865 

1917 

Eastman  Kodak  Co 

“ 

42 

7,910 

1917 

Rochester,  N.  Y 

“ 

37 

42,140 

1917 

Carnegie  Natural  Gas  Co . . . 

“ 

54,  40,  36  and  30 

48,537 

1918 

Carnegie  Natural  Gas  Co . . . 

u 

40 

12,000 

1919 

Akron,  Ohio 

“ 

48 

12,000 

1919 

Jersey  City,  N.  J 

“ 

72 

88,000 

1920 

Elyria,  Ohio 

“ 

36 

24,500 

1920 

Port  Henry.  Vermont 

“ 

36  and  40 

3,000 

1920 

Passaic  Water  Co 

u 

30 

12,300 

1920 

Salt  Lake  City,  Utah 

“ 

36 

1,200 

1920 

Bayonne,  N.  J 

“ 

48 

44,000 

1920 

Akron,  Ohio 

“ 

48 

21,250 

1920 

Detroit,  Michigan 

48 

21,930 

Submarine  Pipe  Lines 


114 


Submarine  Pipe  Lines 


115 


Fig.  60— TOWING  LOCK-BAR  PIPE  INTO  PLACE  IN  A SUBAQUEOUS  LINE. 


Hydraulics — Water 


. 


WATER 

Water  is  composed  of  two  gases,  hydrogen  and  oxygen,  in  the  ratio  of 
two  volumes  of  the  former  to  one  of  the  latter.  It  is  never  found  pure  in 
nature,  owing  to  the  readiness  with  which  it  absorbs  impurities  from  the 
air  and  soil.  Water  boils  under  atmospheric  pressure  (14.7  pounds  at  sea 
level)  at  212°,  passing  off  as  steam.  Its  greatest  density  is  at  39.1°F.,  when 
it  weighs  62.425  pounds  per  cubic  foot. 


Weight  of  Water  per  Cubic  Foot  at  Different  Temperatures 


Temper- 
ature °F 

Weight  per 
cubic  foot, 
pounds 

Temper- 
ature °F 

Weight  per 
cubic  foot, 
pounds 

Temper- 
ature °F 

Weight  per 
cubic  foot, 
pounds 

Temper- 
ature °F 

Weight  per 
cubic  foot, 
pounds 

Temper- 
ature °F 

Weight  per 
cubic  foot, 
pounds 

32 

62.42 

150 

61.18 

260 

58.55 

380 

54.36 

500 

48.7 

40 

62.42 

160 

60.98 

270 

58.26 

390 

53.94 

510 

48.1 

50 

62.41 

170 

60.77 

280 

57.96 

400 

53.5 

520 

47.6 

60 

62.37 

180 

60.55 

290 

57.65 

410 

53.0 

530 

47.0 

70 

62.31 

190 

60.32 

300 

57.33 

420 

52.6 

540 

46.3 

80 

62.23 

200 

60.12 

310 

57.00 

430 

52.2 

550 

45.6 

90 

62.13 

210 

59.88 

320 

56.66 

440 

51.7 

560 

44.9 

100 

62.02 

212 

59.83 

330 

56.30 

450 

51.2 

570 

44.1 

110 

61.89 

220 

59.63 

340 

55.94 

460 

50.7 

580 

43.3 

120 

61.74 

230 

59.37 

350 

55.57 

470 

50.2 

590 

42.6 

130 

61.56 

240 

59.11 

360 

55.18 

480 

49.7 

600 

41.8 

140 

61.37 

250 

58.83 

370 

54.78 

490 

49.2 

1 

Volume  of  Water 


Cent. 

Fahr. 

Volume 

Cent. 

Fahr. 

Volume 

Cent. 

Fahr. 

Volume 

4° 

39.1° 

1.00000 

35° 

95° 

1.00586 

70° 

158° 

1.02241 

5 

41 

1.00001 

40 

104 

1.00767 

75 

167 

1.02548 

10 

50 

1.00025 

45 

113 

1.00967 

80 

176 

1.02872 

15 

59 

1.00083 

50 

122 

1.01186 

85 

185 

1.03213 

20 

68 

1.00171 

55 

131 

1.01423 

90 

194 

1 .03570 

25 

77 

1.00286 

60 

140 

1.01678 

95 

203 

1.03943 

30 

86 

1 .00425 

65 

149 

1.01951 

100 

212 

1.04332 

116 


Water  Pressure 


WATER  PRESSURE 

(From  Kent’s  Mechanical  Engineers’  Pocket  Book.) 


Comparison  of  Heads  of  Water  in  Feet  with  Pressures  in 
Various  Units 


One  foot  of  water  at  39.1°  F. 
One  foot  of  water  at  39.1°  F. 
One  foot  of  water  at  39.1°  F. 
One  foot  of  water  at  39.1°  F. 

One  foot  of  water  at  39.1°  F. 


62.425  pounds  per  square  foot; 

0.4335  pound  per  square  inch; 

0 . 0295  atmosphere ; 

0.8826  inch  of  mercury  at  30°  F; 

( feet  of  air  at  32°  F.  and  atmospheric 
773.3  •<  pressure; 


One  pound  on  the  square  foot,  at  39.1°  F. 
One  pound  on  the  square  inch,  at  39.1°  F. 
One  atmosphere  of  29.922  inches  of  mercury 

One  inch  of  mercury  at  32°  F 

One  foot  of  air  at  32°  F.  and  1 atmosphere 

One  foot  of  average  sea- water 

One  foot  of  water  at  62°  F 

One  foot  of  water  at  62°  F 

One  inch  of  water  at  62°  F.  = 0 . 5774  ounce 
One  pound  of  water  on  the  square  inch  at 

62°  F 

One  ounce  of  water  on  the  square  inch  at 

62°  F 


= 0 .01602  foot  of  water; 

= 2.307  feet  of  water; 

= 33.9  feet  of  water; 

= 1 . 133  feet  of  water; 

= 0 .001293  foot  of  water; 

= 1 .026  feet  of  pure  water; 

= 62 . 355  pounds  per  square  foot; 

= 0 .43302  pound  per  square  inch; 

= 0.036085  pound  per  square  inch; 

= 2.3094  feet  of  water; 

= 1.732  inches  of  water 


Pressure  of  Water  Due  to  Its  Weight.  The  pressure  of  still  water 
in  pounds  per  square  inch  against  the  sides  of  any  pipe,  channel,  or  vessel 
of  any  shape  whatever  is  due  solely  to  the  “head”  or  height  of  the  level 
surface  of  the  water  above  the  point  at  which  the  pressure  is  considered, 
and  is  equal  to  0.43302  pound  per  square  inch  for  every  foot  of  head,  or 
62.355  pounds  per  square  foot  for  every  foot  of  head  (at  62 °F.) 

The  pressure  per  square  inch  is  equal  in  all  directions,  downwards, 
upwards,  or  sideways,  and  is  independent  of  the  shape  or  size  of  the  con- 
taining vessel. 

The  pressure  against  a vertical  surface,  as  a retaining-wall,  at  any 
point,  is  in  direct  ratio  to  the  head  above  that  point,  increasing  from  o at 
the  level  surface  to  a maximum  at  the  bottom.  The  total  pressure  against 
a vertical  strip  of  a unit’s  breadth  increases  as  the  area  of  a right-angled 
triangle  whose  perpendicular  represents  the  height  of  the  strip  and  whose 
base  represents  the  pressure  on  a unit  of  surface  at  the  bottom;  that  is,  it 
increases  as  the  square  of  the  depth.  The  sum  of  all  the  horizontal  pressures 
is  represented  by  the  area  of  the  triangle,  and  the  resultant  of  this  sum  is 
equal  to  this  sum  exerted  at  a point  one-third  of  the  height  from  the  bottom. 
(The  center  of  gravity  of  the  area  of  a triangle  is  one-third  of  its  height.) 

The  horizontal  pressure  is  the  same  if  the  surface  is  inclined  instead  of 
vertical. 

The  amount  of  pressure  on  the  interior  walls  of  a pipe  has  no  appreciable 
effect  upon  the  amount  of  flow. 


117 


Water  Pressure 

Pressure  in  Pounds  per  Square  Inch  for  Different  Heads  of  Water 

(At  62°F., 

1 foot  head  = 0.433  pound  per  square  inch;  0.433  X 144  = 62,352 
pounds  per  cubic  foot.) 

Head, 

feet 

0 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

0 

0.433 

0.866 

1.299 

1.732 

2.165 

2.598 

3.031 

3.464 

3.897 

10 

4.330 

4.763 

5.196 

5.629 

6.062 

6.495 

6.928 

7.361 

7.794 

8.227 

20 

8.660 

9.093 

9.526 

9.959 

10.392 

10.825 

11.258 

11.691 

12.124 

12.557 

30 

12.990 

13.423 

13.856 

14.289 

14.722 

15.155 

15.588 

16.021 

16.454 

16.887 

40 

17.320 

17.753 

18.186 

18.619 

19.052 

19.485 

19.918 

20.351 

20.784 

21.217 

50 

21.650 

22.083 

22.516 

22.949 

23.382 

23.815 

24.248 

24.681 

25.114 

25.547 

60 

25.980 

26.413 

26.846 

27.279 

27.712 

28 . 145 

28.578 

29.011 

29.444 

29.877 

70 

30.310 

30.743 

31.176 

31.609 

32.042 

32.475 

32.908 

33.341 

33.774 

34.207 

80 

34 . 640 

35.073 

35.506 

35.939 

36.372 

36.805 

37.238 

37.671 

38.104 

38 .537 

90 

38.970 

39.403 

39.836 

40.269 

40 . 702 

41.135 

41.568 

42.001 

42.434 

42.867 

Head  in  Feet  of  Water,  Corresponding  to  Pressures  in  Pounds 
per  Square  Inch 

1 pound  per  square  inch  = 2.30947  feet  head;  1 atmosphere  = 14.7  pounds 
per  square  inch  =33.94  feet  head.) 

Pres- 

sure, 

lbs. 

0 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

0 

2.309 

4.619 

6.928 

9.238 

11.547 

13.857 

16.166 

18.476 

20.785 

10 

23.0947 

25.404 

27.714 

30.023 

32.333 

34.642 

36.952 

39.261 

41.570 

43.880 

20 

46.1894 

48.499 

50.808 

53.118 

55.427 

57.737 

60.046 

62.356 

64.665 

66.975 

30 

69.2841 

71.594 

73.903 

76.213 

78.522 

80.831 

83.141 

85.450 

87.760 

90.069 

40 

92.3788 

94.688 

96.998 

99.307 

101.62 

103.93 

106.24 

108.55 

110.85 

113.16 

50 

115.4735 

117.78 

120.09 

122.40 

124.71 

127.02 

129.33 

131.64 

133.95 

136.26 

60 

138.5682 

140.88 

143.19 

145.50 

147.81 

150.12 

152.42 

154.73 

157.04 

159.35 

70 

161.6629 

163.97 

166.28 

168.59 

170.90 

173.21 

175.52 

177.83 

180.14 

182.45 

80 

184.7576 

187.07 

189.38 

191.69 

194.00 

196.31 

198.61 

200.92 

203.23 

205.54 

90 

207.8523 

210.16 

212.47 

214.78 

217.09 

219.40 

221.71 

224.02 

226.33 

228 . 64 

Ice  and  Snow. 

(From  Clark.) 

1 cubic  foot  of  ice  at  32°  F.  weighs 

57.50  pounds;  1 pound  of  ice  at  32°  F. 
30.067  cubic  inches. 

has  a volume  of  0.0174  cubic  foot  = 

Relative  volume  of  ice  to  water  at  32° 

F.,  1.0855, 

the  expansion  in 

passing  into  the  solid  state  being  8.55  per  cent,  i 
0.922,  water  at  62°  F.,  being  1. 

Specific  gravity  of  ice  = 

! At  high  pressures  the 

melting-point  of  ice  is  lower  than  32°  F., 

being 

! at  the  rate  of  0.0133°  F.  for  each  additional  atmosphere  of  pressure. 
Specific  heat  of  ice  is  0.504,  that  of  water  being  1. 

1 cubic  foot  of  fresh  snow,  according  to  humidity  of  atmosphere,  weighs 

5 pounds  to  12  pounds.  1 cubic  foot  of  snow  moistened  and  compacted 
by  rain  weighs  15  pounds  to  50  pounds  (Trau twine). 

118 


Flow  of  Water  in  Pipes 


Specific  Heat  of  Water 

(From  Marks  and  Davis’s  Steam  Tables.) 


Degrees  F. 

Specific 

heat 

Degrees  F. 

Specific 

heat 

Degrees  F. 

Specific 

heat 

Degrees  F. 

Specific 

heat 

Degrees  F. 

Specific 

heat 

Degrees  F. 

Specific 

heat 

20 

1.0168 

120 

0.9974 

220 

1.007 

320 

1.035 

420 

1.072 

520 

1.123 

30 

1.0098 

130 

0.9979 

230 

1.009 

330 

1.038 

430 

1.077 

530 

1.128 

40 

1.0045 

140 

0.9986 

240 

1.012 

340 

1.041 

440 

1.082 

540 

1.134 

50 

1.0012 

150 

0.9994 

250 

1.015 

350 

1.045 

450 

1.086 

550 

1.140 

60 

0.9990 

160 

1.0002 

260 

1.018 

360 

1.048 

460 

1.091 

560 

1.146 

70 

0.9977 

170 

1.0010 

270 

1.021 

370 

1.052 

470 

1.096 

570 

1.152 

80 

0.9970 

180 

1.0019 

280 

1.023 

380 

1.056 

480 

1.101 

580 

1.158 

90 

0.9967 

190 

1.0029 

290 

1.026 

390 

1.060 

490 

1.106 

590 

1 .165 

100 

0.9967 

200 

1.0039 

300 

1.029 

400 

1.064 

500 

1.112 

600 

1.172 

110 

0.9970 

210 

1.0050 

310 

1.032 

410 

1 .068 

510 

1.117 

Compressibility  of  Water.  Water  is  very  slightly  compressible. 
Its  compressibility  is  from  0.000040  to  0.000051  for  one  atmosphere, 
decreasing  with  increase  of  temperature.  For  each  foot  of  pressure,  distilled 
water  will  be  diminished  in  volume  0.0000015  to  0.0000013.  Water  is  so 
incompressible  that  even  at  a depth  of  a mile,  a cubic  foot  of  water  will 
weigh  only  about  half  a pound  more  than  at  the  surface. 

FLOW  OF  WATER  IN  PIPES 

The  quantity  of  water  discharged  through  a pipe  depends  on  the  head. 
If  the  discharge  occurs  freely  into  the  air,  this  head  is  the  difference  in  level 
between  the  surface  of  the  water  in  the  reservoir  and  the  center  of  the 
discharge  end  of  the  pipe;  if  the  lower  end  of  the  pipe  is  submerged,  the 
head  is  the  difference  in  elevation  between  the  two  water  levels.  The  dis- 
charge for  a given  diameter  depends  also  upon  the  length  of  the  pipe,  upon 
the  character  of  its  interior  surface  as  to  smoothness  and  upon  the  number 
and  sharpness  of  its  bends. 

The  head,  instead  of  being  an  actual  distance  between  levels,  may  be 
caused  by  pressure,  as  by  pumping,  in  which  case  the  head  is  calculated 
as  a vertical  distance  corresponding  to  the  pressure,  1 pound  per  square 
inch  being  equal  to  2.309  feet  head,  or  1 foot  head  being  equal  to  a pressure 
of  0.433  pound  per  square  inch. 

The  total  head  operating  to  cause  flow  is  divided  into  three  parts: 
(1)  The  velocity  head,  which  is  the  height  through  which  a body  must 
fall  in  a vacuum  to  acquire  the  velocity  with  which  the  water  flows  in 
the  pipe.  This  is  equal  to  v 2 -f-  2 g,  in  which  v is  the  velocity  in  feet 
per  second,  and  2 g =64.32;  (2)  The  entry  head,  which  is  required  to 
overcome  the  resistance  to  entrance  to  the  pipe.  With  sharp-edged 
entrance  the  entry  head  equals  about  one-half  of  the  velocity  head;with 
smooth,  rounded  entrance  the  entry  head  is  inappreciable;  (3)  The  friction 
head,  due  to  the  frictional  resistance  to  flow  in  the  pipe. 


119 


Flow  of  Water 


120 


Flow  of  Water  in  Pipes 


In  ordinary  cases  of  pipes  of  considerable  length  the  sum  of  the  entry 
and  velocity  heads  scarcely  exceeds  one  foot;  in  the  case  of  long  pipes 
with  low  heads  it  is  so  small  that  it  may  be  neglected. 

When  the  flow  becomes  steady,  the  pipe  is  entirely  filled  throughout 
its  length,  and  hence  the  mean  velocity  at  any  section  is  the  same  as  that 
at  the  end,  when  the  size  is  uniform.  This  velocity  is  found  to  decrease  as 
the  length  of  the  pipe  increases,  other  things  being  equal,  and  becomes  very 
small  for  great  lengths,  which  shows  that  nearly  all  the  head  has  been  lost 
in  overcoming  the  resistances.  The  length  of  the  pipe  is  measured  along 
its  axis,  following  all  the  curves,  if  there  be  any.  The  velocity  considered 
is  the  mean  velocity,  which  is  equal  to  the  discharge  divided  by  the  area 
of  the  cross  section  of  the  pipe.  The  actual  velocities  in  the  cross  section 
are  greater  than  this  mean  velocity  near  the  center  and  less  than  it  near  the 
interior  surface  of  the  pipe. 

The  object  of  the  discussion  of  flow  in  pipes  is  to  enable  the  discharge 
which  will  occur  under  given  conditions  to  be  determined,  or  to  ascertain 
the  proper  size  which  a pipe  should  have  in  order  to  deliver  a given  dis- 
charge. The  subject  cannot,  however,  be  developed  with  the  definiteness 
which  characterizes  the  flow  from  orifices  and  weirs,  partly  because  the 
condition  of  the  interior  surface  of  the  pipe  greatly  modifies  the  dis- 
charge, partly  because  of  the  lack  of  experimental  data,  and  partly  on  account 
of  defective  theoretical  knowledge  regarding  the  laws  of  flow.  In  orifices 
and  weirs  errors  of  two  or  three  per  cent  may  be  regarded  as  large  with 
careful  work;  in  pipes  such  errors  are  common,  and  are  generally  exceeded 
in  most  practical  investigations. 

It  fortunately  happens,  however,  that  in  most  cases  of  the  design  of 
systems  of  pipes  errors  of  five  and  ten  per  cent  are  not  important,  although 
they  are  of  course  to  be  avoided  if  possible,  or,  if  not  avoided,  they  should 
occur  on  the  side  of  safety. 

Quantity  of  Water  Discharged 

The  quantity  of  water  which  flows  through  a pipe  is  the  product  of  the 
area  of  its  cross  section  and  the  mean  velocity  of  flow.  That  is, 

Q=av, 

in  which  Q is  the  quantity  discharged  in  cubic  feet  per  second,  a is  the  area 
in  square  feet  and  v is  the  velocity 'in  feet  per  second. 

For  U.  S.  gallons  per  second  multiply  by  7.4805 

For  U.  S.  gallons  per  minute  multiply  by  448.83 
For  U.  S.  gallons  per  hour  multiply  by  26929 . 9 
For  U.  S.  gallons  per  24  hours  multiply  by  646317. 

The  diagram,  page  123,  gives  the  discharge  in  gallons  per  minute, 
when  the  velocity  in  the  pipe  line  is  known. 


121 


Flow  of  Water 


FIG.  02.  INSTALLING  A LOCK-BAR  PIPE  TWIN  LINE  THROUGH  CITY  STREETS 


122 


Quantity  of  Water  Discharged 


123 


Flow  of  Water  in  Pipes 


Mean  Velocity  of  Flow 

The  velocity  of  flow,  depending  as  it  does  to  such  a great  extent  upon 
the  condition  of  the  interior  surface  of  the  pipe,  is  difficult  to  compute. 
Below  are  given  the  formulae  most  generally  accepted.  In  the  solution 
of  any  problem  a comparison  of  the  results  obtained  by  the  use  of  these 
formulae  is  advisable.  There  are  so  many  conditions  affecting  the  flow 
of  water  that  all  hydraulic  formulae  give  only  approximations  to  accurate 
results. 


Approximate  Formula  (Trau twine).  To  find  the  velocity  of  water 
discharged  from  a pipe  line,  knowing  the  head,  length  and  inside  diameter, 
use  the  following  formula: 


v 


h D 


L + 54  D’ 


in  which  v = approximate  mean  velocity  in  feet  per  second; 
m — coefficient  from  table  below; 

D — diameter  of  pipe  in  feet; 
h = total  head  in  feet; 

L — total  length  of  line  in  feet. 

Values  of  Coefficient  “m” 


Diameter 

of  Pipe 

m 

Diameter 

of  Pipe 

m 

Feet 

Inches 

Feet 

Inches 

0.1 

1.2 

23 

1.5 

18 

53 

0.2 

2.4 

30 

2.0 

24 

57 

0.3 

3.6 

34 

2.5 

30 

60 

0.4 

4.8 

37 

3.0 

36 

62 

0.5 

6.0 

39 

3.5 

42 

64 

0.6 

7.2 

42 

4.0 

48 

66 

0.7 

8.4 

44 

5.0 

60 

68 

0.8 

9.6 

46 

6.0 

72 

70 

0.9 

10.8 

47 

7.0 

84 

72 

1.0 

12.0 

48 

10.0 

120 

77 

The  above  coefficients  are  averages  deduced  from  a large  number  of 
experiments.  In  most  cases  of  pipes  carefully  laid  and  in  fair  condition, 
they  should  give  results  within  5 to  10  per  cent  of  the  truth. 

Example : Given  the  head,  h — 50  feet,  the  length,  L — 5280  feet,  and 
the  diameter,  D=  2 feet;  to  find  the  velocity  and  quantity  of  discharge. 


The  value  of  the  coefficient  m from  the  table  when  D = 2 feet  is 


m = 57. 


124 


Kutter’s  Formula 


Substituting  these  values  in  the  formula,  we  get : 

^57AppX2  = 57 ^jOO  =57X0.136  = 7.752  feet  per  sec. 

''5280+108  '5388 

To  find  the  discharge  in  cubic  feet  per  second,  multiply  this  velocity 
by  the  area  of  cross  section  of  the  pipe  in  square  feet. 

Thus,  3.1416X(1)  2 X7. 752  = 24.35  cubic  feet  per  second. 

Since  there  are  7.48  gallons  in  a cubic  foot,  the  discharge  in  gallons 
per  second  =24.35X7.48  = 182.1. 

The  above  formula  is  only  an  approximation,  since  the  flow  is  modified 
by  bends,  joints,  incrustations,  etc.  Wrought  pipes  are  smoother  than 
cast-iron  ones,  thereby  presenting  less  friction  and  less  encouragement 
for  deposits;  and,  being  in  longer  lengths,  the  number  of  joints  is  reduced, 
thus  lessening  the  undesirable  effects  of  eddy  currents. 

Kutter’s  Formula.  This  formula,  although  originally  designed  for 
open  channels,  can  be  used  in  the  case  of  long  pipes  with  low  heads.  It 
is  the  joint  production  of  two  eminent  Swiss  engineers,  E.  Ganguillet  and 
W.  R.  Kutter,  and  is,  properly  speaking,  a formula  for  finding  the  coefficient 
C in  the  well-known  Chezy  formula: 

v=C  xrs, 

in  which  y = mean  velocity  in  feet  per  second; 
r=mean  hydraulic  radius  in  feet; 
s = slope  = head  -f  - length. 

The  mean  hydraulic  radius  is  the  area  of  wet  cross-section  divided  by 
the  wet  perimeter,  which  for  pipes  running  full,  or  exactly  half  full,  is 
equal  to  one-quarter  of  the  diameter. 

According  to  Kutter  the  value  of  this  coefficient  C is 

0.00281  1.811 


41.6+ + 

(j  _ s n 

/ 0.0028R  n 

1+  4.16+ ) X— 

V 5 / vr 


in  which  s is  the  slope,  r is  the  mean  hydraulic  radius  in  feet  and  n is 
the  “coefficient  of  roughness.”  The  value  of  n varies  from  .010  for  very 
smooth  pipes  to  .015  for  pipes  in  a very  poor  condition.  For  ordinary 
wrought  pipe  .012  can  be  used.  For  clean  steel  riveted  pipe  .015  can  be 
used. 

The  following  table  gives  values  of  the  coefficient  C as  obtained  by 
Kutter’s  formula  for  different  slopes,  hydraulic  radii  and  degrees  of  rough- 
ness. 


Darcy1  s Formula 


Table  of  Coefficient  “G” 


Coeffi- 

cient 


.1 

.15 

.2 

.3 

.4 

.6 

.8 

1.0 

1.5 

2.0 

104 

116 

126 

138 

148 

157 

166 

172 

183 

190 

199 

89 

101 

110 

120 

129 

140 

148 

154 

164 

170 

179 

78 

90 

97 

107 

115 

126 

133 

138 

148 

154 

162 

69 

80 

87 

96 

104 

113 

121 

125 

135 

141 

149 

62 

71 

78 

87 

94 

103 

110 

115 

124 

130 

138 

50 

59 

65 

73 

79 

87 

93 

98 

106 

112 

119 

43 

50 

54 

62 

68 

75 

81 

85 

93 

98 

105 

Hydraulic  radius  in  r feet 


Slope  s = . 0004 


.009 

.010 

.011 

.012 

.013 

.015 

.017 


.009 

.010 

.011 

.012 

.013 

.015 

.017 


Slope  s = .0010 


110 

121 

129 

141 

150 

161 

169 

175 

184 

191 

199 

94 

105 

113 

124 

131 

142 

150 

155 

165 

171 

179 

83 

92 

99 

109 

117 

127 

134 

139 

149 

155 

163 

73 

82 

89 

98 

105 

115 

122 

127 

136 

142 

149 

65 

74 

81 

89 

96 

104 

111 

116 

124 

130 

138 

54 

61 

66 

74 

80 

88 

94 

99 

108 

112 

119 

45 

51 

57 

63 

69 

76 

82 

86 

93 

98 

105 

.009 

.010 

.011 

.012 

.013 

.015 

.017 


Slope  s = .0100 


no 

122 

130 

143 

151 

162 

170 

175 

185 

191 

95 

105 

114 

125 

133 

143 

151 

156 

165 

171 

83 

93 

100 

111 

119 

129 

135 

141 

149 

155 

74 

83 

90 

100 

107 

116 

123 

128 

136 

142 

66 

75 

81 

90 

98 

106 

112 

117 

125 

130 

54 

62 

67  . 

76 

82 

90 

95 

99 

107 

112 

46 

52 

57 

64 

70 

77 

82 

87 

94 

99 

199 

179 

162 

149 

138 

119 

105 


For  slopes  steeper  than  .01  per  unit  of  length,  =52.8  feet  per  mile, 
C remains  practically  the  same  as  at  that  slope.  But  the  velocity  (being 
CX  Vrs)  of  course  continues  to  increase  as  the  slope  becomes  steeper. 
Darcy’s  Formula.  The  simplest  form  of  Darcy’s  formula  is 

Cv2  = Ds, 

in  which  v is  the  velocity  in  feet  per  second,  D is  the  diameter  of  the  pipe 
in  feet,  s is  the  slope  and  C is  a coefficient,  varying  with  the  diameter  and 
roughness  of  the  pipe.  For  cast-iron  and  wrought  pipes  of  the  same 
roughness,  the  values  of  C are  given  below.  For  rough  pipe  Darcy  doubled 
the  coefficient. 


126 


Williams  and  Hazen’s  Formula 


Values  of  “C”  in  Darcy’s  Formula 


Diameter, 

inches 

Rough  pipe 

Smooth  pipe 

3 

0.00080 

0.00040 

4 

0.00076 

0.00038 

6 

0.00072 

0.00036 

8 

0.00068 

0.00034 

10 

0.00066 

0.00033 

12 

0.00066 

0.00033 

14 

0.00065 

0.000325 

16 

0.00064 

0.00032 

24 

0.00064 

0.00032 

30 

0.00063 

0.000315 

36 

0.00062 

0.00031 

48 

0.00062 

0.00031 

Williams  am!  Hazen’s  Exponential  Formula.  From  Chezy’s 
formula,  v—C^rs}  it  would  appear  that  the  velocity  varies  as  the  square 
root  of  the  head;  this  is  not  true,  however,  for  C is  not  a constant,  but  a 
variable  depending  upon  the  roughness  of  the  pipe  and  upon  the  hydraulic 
radius  and  the  slope.  Williams,  and  Hazen  as  a result  of  a study  of  the 
best  records  of  experiments  and  plotting  them  on  logarithmic  ruled  paper, 
ound  an  exponential  formula  t;=CV0'63  s0<54,  in  which  the  coefficient  C 
is  practically  independent  of  the  diameter  and  the  slope,  and  varies  only 
with  the  condition  of  the  surface.  In  order  to  equalize  the  numerical  value 
of  C to  that  of  the  C in  the  Chezy  formula,  at  a slope  of  0.001,  they  added 
the  factor  0.001-004  to  the  formula,  so  that  the  working  formula  of  Williams 
and  Hazen  is 

v =Cr°-63s°-540.001— 004. 

The  value  of  C varies  to  a great  extent,  depending  on  the  condition 
of  the  interior  of  the  pipe.  A fair  value  for  iron  or  steel  pipe  is  (7  = 100. 
Computations  of  the  exponential  formula  are  made  by  logarithms  or  by 
the  Williams-Hazen  hydraulic  slide  rule. 


12? 


128 


Lock-Bar  Pipe 


129 


■ n ...  ..  i . l i l ...  i i i ■ i ■ . i 

Water  Hammer 


Hydraulic  Grade-line.  In  a straight  tube  of  uniform  diameter 
throughout,  running  full  and  discharging  freely  into  the  air,  the  hydraulic 
grade-line  is  a straight  line  drawn  from  the  discharge  end  to  a point  im- 
mediately over  the  entry  end  of  the  pipe,  and  at  a depth  below  the  surface 
equal  to  the  entry  and  velocity  heads  (Trautwine). 

In  a pipe  leading  from  a reservoir,  no  part  of  its  length  should  be  above 
the  hydraulic  grade-line. 

Air-bound  Pipes.  A pipe  is  said  to  be  air-bound  when,  in  conse- 
quence of  air  being  entrapped  at  the  high  points  of  vertical  curves  in  the 
line,  water  will  not  flow  out  of  the  pipe,  although  the  supply  is  higher  than 
the  outlet.  The  remedy  is  to  provide  cocks  or  valves  at  the  high  points, 
through  which  the  air  may  be  discharged.  The  valve  may  be  made  auto- 
matic by  means  of  a float. 

Water  Hammer.  When  a valve  in  a pipe  is  closed  while  the  water 
is  flowing,  the  velocity  of  the  water  behind  the  valve  is  retarded  and  a 
dynamic  pressure  is  produced.  When  the  valve  is  closed  quickly  this 
dynamic  pressure  may  be  much  greater  than  that  due  to  the  static  pressure, 
and  it  is  then  called  “water  hammer”  or  “water  ram.”  This  action  is  ^ 
dangerous  and  causes  in  many  cases  fracture  of  the  pipe.  It  is  provided 
against  by  arrangements  which  prevent  a rapid  closing  of  the  valve.  The 
formulae  for  the  pressure  produced  by  this  shock  are 

Iv 

p = 0.027 po  + pi,  (1) 

t 


p = 63v  - po  + pi,  (2) 

where  po  =the  static  pressure  when  there  is  no  flow,  pi  =the  static  pressure 
when  the  flow  is  in  progress,  p=the  maximum  dynamic  pressure  due  to 
the  water  hammer  in  excess  over  the  pressure  po,  v = the  velocity  in  ieet  \ 
per  second,  1=  length  of  pipe  back  from  the  valve  in  feet,  and  t-  time  of 
closing  of  valve  in  seconds.  The  pressures  in  the  formulae  are  expressed 
in  pounds  per  square  inch.  Formula  (1)  is  to  be  used  when  t is  greater 
than  0.000428  l and  formula  (2)  when  t is  equal  to  or  less  than  this. 


From  the  first  of  these  formulae  the  value  of  t when  p — o is  found  to  be 

t = 0.027  -A- > 
po-pl 

which  is  the  time  of  valve  closing  in  order  that  there  may  be  no  water 
hammer.  To  prevent  the  effects  of  water  hammer,  it  is  customary  to 
arrange  valves  so  that  they  cannot  be  closed  very  quickly,  and  the  last 
formula  furnishes  the  means  of  estimating  the  time  required  in  order  that 
no  excess  of  dynamic  pressure  over  the  static  pressure  po  may  occur. 


Long  Pipes 


Formulas  for  Long  Pipes 

The  Chezy  Formula.  If  v is  the  velocity  in  the  pipe,  C a coefficient 
dependent  upon  roughness,  density,  velocity,  and  diameter,  r the  Hydraulic, 
Radius,  namely  the  cross-sectional  area  divided  by  the  wetted  perimeter, 
hf  the  frictional  loss  of  head  in  a length  L,  and  if  hf/L  be  designated  by  s 
the  inclination  or  slope,  then 


v-C^rhfjL  or  v=C^rs 

in  which  for  new  pipes  C ranges  from  95  to  152  and  for  old  pipes  from  60  to 
120,  the  value  increasing  both  with  the  diameter  and  the  velocity,  as  shown 
in  the  following  tables. 

Values  of  “C”  in  Chezy  Formula  for  Cast-iron  Pipes 


Velocities  in  feet  per  second 


of  pipe, 
inches 

For  new  pipes 

For  old  pipes 

1 

3 

6 

10 

1 

3 

6 

10 

3 

95 

98 

100 

102 

63 

68 

71 

73 

6 

96 

101 

104 

106 

69 

74 

77 

79 

9 

98 

105 

109 

112 

73 

87 

80 

84 

12 

100 

108 

112 

117 

77 

82 

85 

88 

15 

102 

110 

117 

122 

81 

86 

89 

91 

18 

105 

112 

119 

125 

86 

91 

94 

97 

24 

111 

120 

'*126 

131 

92 

98 

101 

104 

30 

118 

126 

.131 

136 

98 

103 

106 

109 

36 

124 

131 

136 

140 

103 

108 

111 

114 

42 

130 

136 

140 

144 

105 

111 

114 

117 

48 

135 

141 

145 

148 

106 

112 

115 

118 

60 

142 

147 

150 

152 

For  steel  riveted  pipes  see  next  page.  Chezy ’s  formula  is  also  used  for 
conduits  and  streams  by  the  coefficient  C for  such  cases  is  generally  ex- 
pressed in  terms  of  r and  s 

Darcy’s  Formula.  The  original  form  of  Darcy’s  equation  was  rs  — 
av+bv 2,  where  a and  b were  coefficients.  This  Darcy  later  reduced  to  rs  = 
Cv2,  where  C = ci+C2/r.  where  ci  and  C2  are  constants.  For  new  cast-iron 
and  for  wrought-iron  pipes  of  the  same  roughness,  Darcy’s  values  of  these 


131 


Flow  in  Pipes  and  Channels 


Values  of  “C”  in  Chezy  Formula  for  Steel  Riveted  Pipes 


Diameter 
of  pipes, 
inches 

Velocity  in  ft.  per  second 

1 

3 

5 

10 

3 

81 

86 

89 

92 

11 

92 

102 

107 

115 

11 

93 

99 

102 

105 

15 

109 

112 

114 

117 

38 

113 

113 

113 

113 

42 

102 

106 

108 

111 

48 

105 

105 

105 

105 

72 

110 

110 

111 

111 

72 

93 

101 

105 

110 

103 

114 

109 

106 

104 

constants  are  ci  = 0.0000773 
reduces  to 

&/ =0.00000647  -1-2  D+1l  tk 
D r 


and  C2  = 0.00000162.  The  formula  then 


u = 394  yj_ 


D 


Vrs 


12D+1 

where  D is  the  diameter  of  the  pipe  in  feet.  For  rough  pipe  Darcy  reduced 
the  velocity  one-half.  Darcy’s  formula  may  be  transposed  to  CV 2 =Ds,  in 
which  case  C has  an  average  value  of  0.00032  for  clean  pipes  of  diameters 
from  8 to  48  inches  inclusive,  the  variation  being  only  3%  from  the  mean 
for  all  except  the  8-inch.  The  table  on  page  127  gives  more  accurate  values 
of  C for  Darcy’s  formula  in  the  last  form. 

Fanning’s  formula  for  flow  in  pipes  is 

or  v^\[2gDhf 

hs~  D2g  or  v~ 

where  / is  a coefficient  which  ranges  from  0.0071  to  0.0028  for  new  pipes  and 
from  0.0152  to  0.00046  for  old  ones,  the  value  decreasing  as  diameter  and 
velocity  increase.  The  other  notation  is  the  same  as  that  at  the  beginning 
of  this  article. 

Values  of  / in  Fanning’s  Formula  for  Cast-iron  Pipes 


Velocity  in  feet  per  second 


of  pipe, 
inches 

For  new  pipes 

For  old  pipes 

1 

3 

6 

10 

1 

3 

6 

10 

3 

.0071 

.0067 

.0064 

.0062 

.0152 

.0139 

.0128 

.0122 

6 

.007 

.0063 

.006 

.0057 

.0135 

.0117 

.0108 

.0103 

9 

.0067 

.0058 

.0055 

.0051 

.0122 

.0105 

.010 

.0092 

12 

.0064 

.0056 

.0051 

.0048 

.0108 

.0096 

.0089 

.0084 

15 

.0062 

.0053 

.0048 

.0043 

.0099 

.0087 

.0081 

.0078 

18 

.0058 

.0051 

.0045 

0041 

.0087 

.0078 

.0073 

.0069 

24 

.0053 

.0045 

0040 

0037 

0076 

0067 

.0063 

.0060 

30 

0046 

.0040 

.0037 

.0035 

.0067 

.0061 

.0057 

.0055 

36 

.0042 

.0037 

.0035 

.0033 

.0061 

.0056 

.0052 

.0050 

42 

.0038 

.0035 

.0033 

.0031 

.0058 

.0052 

.005 

.0048 

48 

60 

.0036 

.0032 

.003 

.0030 

.0031 

.0029 

.0029 

.0028 

.0057 

.0051 

.0049 

.0046 

132 


Long  Pipes 


Tables  for  Long  Pipes  are  given  on  the  three  following  pages.  The  friction  factors 
4/  used  in  computing  them  differ  slightly  from  those  at  the  foot  of  the  preceeding  page  and 
are  the  same  as  those  given  in  “Merriman’s  Treatise  on  Hydraulics.”  These  tables  apply 
to  new,  clean,  straight  cast-iron  and  wrought-iron  pipes,  either  smooth  or  coated  with  coal 
tar,  and  laid  with  close  joints.  A pipe  is  said  to  be  long  when  its  length  is  such  that  the 
error  in  computing  v by  the  last  formula  does  not  exceed  five  percent;  this  will  usually  be 
the  case  when  the  length  of  the  pipe  is  greater  than  1000  diameters. 

The  discharges  given  in  the  tables  are  accurate  in  the  last  figure  for  the  given  velocities. 
Thus  for  a velocity  of  3.4  ft.  per  sec.  the  discharges  for  pipes  6 and  16  in.  in  diameter  are 
40.1  and  285  cu.  ft.  per  min.  The  friction  head,  given  in  the  second  column  under  each 
size  of  pipe,  is  however  liable  to  an  error  of  one  or  two  units  in  the  second  figure;  thqs  for 
3.4  ft.  per  sec.,  in  the  6-inch  pipe  the  head  0.88  per  100  ft.  may  actually  range  from  0.86  to 
0.90  for  new,  clean  pipes. 

Velocities  and  Discharges  for  a given  pipe  may  be  found  from  the  tables  when  the 
friction  head  is  known.  For  example,  let  a pipe  3500  ft.  long  and  6 in.  in  diameter  have  a 
total  head  of  37.8  ft.  Here  the  friction  head  per  100  ft.  is  100X378/3500=1.08,  whence 
from  the  table  velocity  =3.8  ft.  per  sec.,  and  discharge  =44.8  cu.  ft.  per  min.  Again,  let  an  8 
-in.  pipe  6075  ft.  long  be  under  a head  of  112.5  ft.  then  friction  head  per  100  ft.  is  lOOx- 
112.5/6075  = 1.85,  whence  velocity  =6.1  ft.  per  sec.,  and  discharge  = 199  cu.  ft.  per  sec. 
These  are  for  new,  clean,  straight  iron  pipes.  Curves  influence  results  but  little  unless 
they  are  very  sharp. 

For  Old  Pipes  the  actual  heads  should  be  multiplied  by  the  following  numbers  before 
using  the  table  to  obtain  velocities  and  discharges: 

For  diameter,  3 6 12  16  24  30  36  in. 

Multiplier 0.50  0.55  0.60  0.62  0.64  0.65  0.66 

For  example,  let  an  old  pipe  3500  ft.  long  and  6 in.  diameter  be  under  an  actual  head 
of  37.8  ft.  or  1.08  ft.  per  100  ft;  the  true  friction  head  is  0.55X1.08  =0.59  ft.  per  100  ft., 
whence  from  the  table  velocity  =2.8  ft.  per  sec.  and  discharge  =33  cu.  ft.  per  sec.  Similarly , 
for  given  velocities  the  true  friction  heads  are  found  approximately  by  multiplying  the 
tabular  values  by  the  following  numbers: 

For  diameter,  3 6 12  16  24  30  36  in. 

Multiplier 2.00  1.81  1.67  1.61  1.56  1.54  1.52 

For  example,  for  a velocity  of  60  ft.  per  sec.  the  friction  head  in  an  old  pipe  of  12  in. 
diameter  is  1.87  instead  of  1.12  ft.  per  100  ft.  The  term  old  pipe  is  a vague  one,  and  refers 
to  the  amount  of  corrosion  and  incrustation  rather  than  to  the  actual  life  in  years. 

The  Required  Diameter  for  a pipe  to  furnish  a given  discharge  under  a given  head 
may  also  be  roughly  found  from  the  tables.  For  example,  to  find  diameter  to  furnish  100 
cu.  ft.  min.  under  a head  of  1.2  ft.  per  100  ft:  for  a new,  clean  pipe  the  tables  give  8 inches 
as  required  diameter,  for  an  old  pipe,  assume  multiplier  as  0.5,  then  head  becomes,  0.60 
ft.  per  100  ft.  and  the  table  shows  that  a 10-in.  pipe  is  somewhat  too  large. 

The  formula  for  computing  the  diameter  of  a long  pipe  is:  D =0.479  (4 flcpjhyti),  in  which 
q = discharge  in.  cu.  ft.  per  min.,  h =head  in  ft.,  I = length  of  pipe  in  ft.  D = diameter  of  pipe 
in  ft.,  and  a rough  mean  value  of  / being  taken  as  0.005  for  new  pipe.  After  D is  computed 
the  velocity  is  found  by  »=q/^7rD2  and  thus  a better  value  of  / may  be  obtained  from 
the  table  at  foot  of  page  preceding.  Then  a new  diameter  may  be  re-computed  if  the  change 
in  / seems  to  warrant  it. 

For  example,  to  find  the  diameter  of  a new  pipe  to  deliver  67  cu.  ft.  per  sec.  under  a 
head  of  24  ft.  its  length  being  4500  ft.  Using  4/  as  0.020,  the  formula  gives  D =3.35  ft., 
whence  v =6.6  ft.  per  sec.  Then  from  the  table  at  foot  of  preceding  page  a closer  value  of  / 
is  found  to  be  0.0061,  or  4/ =0.025.  A second  computation  now  gives  D =3.52  ft.  so  that 
a 42-inch  pipe  should  be  used.  With  the  same  data  the  rough  value  of  4/  for  an  old  pipe 
is  0.035  and  D is  about  48  inches. 


133 


Exponential  Formula  for  Pipes 


Kut ter.  The  Kutter  formula  was  designed  for  open  channels  and  will  be  treated  under 
that  head.  It  is  sometimes  used  for  pipes,  but  the  results  from  it,  since  the  coefficients,  like 
those  of  the  Chezy  and  Fanning  formulas,  change  with  the  velocity  in  the  same  pipe,  are 
usually  erroneous,  except  for  a very  small  range  of  velocity.  For  this  reason  it  is  not  to  be 
recommended  for  general  use  in  computations  for  pipes. 


Exponential  Formula  for  Pipes 

One  form  of  an  exponential  formula  for  flow  of  water  in  pipes  is 

hf=KvNL/D 1 25 

where  the  notation  is  the  same  as  that  at  beginning  of  page  135,  but  where  the  coefficients 
K and  N may  vary  with  the  kind  and  condition  of  the  pipe.  To  avoid  zeros  in  the  coeffi- 
cient a unit  length  of  1000  feet  may  be  taken,  when  the  formula  becomes 


hr 


KvN 


n1-25  iooo 


in  which  N has  a mean  value  of  1.87  and  K ranges  from  0 28  to  0.48  with  an  average  value 
of  0.38  for  ordinarily  clean  pipes.  For  rough  or  tubercuJated  pipes  K may  become  as  high 
as  0.70.  The  advantage  of  the  exponential  formula  is  that  the  coefficient  for  the  same  pipe 
is  nearly  constant  and,  if  the  exponent,  its  range  being  from  1.70  to  2. 00, be  properly  selec- 
ted, absolutely  so,  and  the  variation  in  all  cases  is  much  less  than  with  other  formulas,  so 
that  with  a few  average  coefficients  for  different  classes  of  channels,  all  hydraulic  flow 
problems  may  be  solved  with  reasonable  accuracy  without  reference  to  any  tables  of  coeffi- 
cients. The  foregoing  formula  with  the  coefficient  0.38  may  be  expected  to  give  results 
within  20  % of  accuracy  for  any  pipes  likely  to  be  encountered  which  have  diameters  from 
one  inch  to  fifteen  feet,  except  those  extremely  tuberculated,  and  with  velocities  from  1 
foot  to  20  feet  per  second.  For  ordinary  cast-iron  or  riveted  pipe  with  any  diameter  and 
velocity,  the  results  may  be  expected  to  be  within  6 % of  accuracy. 

The  exponential  formula  is  derived  from  experiment  in  the  following  manner:  Any 

plane  curve  passing  through  the  origin  of  coordinates  can  be  represented  by  an  equation  of 
the  form  y = mxN,  in  which  m and  N may  be  either  constant  or  variable.  If  the  curve  be 
one  of  single  curvature  such  that  the  change  of  inclination  of  its  tangents  either  contin- 
uously increases  or  continuously  decreases,  both  m and  N become  constants.  All  curves 
which  are  loci  of  equations  expressing  the  relation  between  velocity  and  loss  of  head  in 
flowing  water  are  of  this  latter  class,  and  consequently  hf=mvN  is  a general  expression 
for  the  loss  of  head  in  either  a pipe  or  an  open  channel.  If  for  any  pipe  line  the  values  of 
m and  N be  determined,  the  equation  of  flow  in  that  line  is  established.  Expressing  the 
above  equation  for  logarithmic  computation,  it  becomes 

log  hf = log  m -r-Mog  V 

and  considering  the  logarithms  as  mere  quantities,  this  is  at  once  seen  to  be  the  equation 
of  a straight  line  in  which  log  m is  the  intercept  on  the  hf  axis  and  N is  the  tangent  of  the 
angle  which  the  line  makes  with  the  v axis.  Both  m and  N may  be  found  by  determining 
two  points  in  the  line  representing  the  plottings  of  the  logarithms.  If  it  be  desired  to 
draw  the  straight  line  which  most  nearly  coincides  with  a number  of  points,  it  must  pass 
through  their  center  of  gravity  and  also  through  the  centers  of  gravity  of  the  two  groups 
into  whicn  the  center  of  gravity  of  the  whole  divides  them.  Having  the  last  two  points, 
the  equation  of  the  line  is  readily  determined. 

The  following  example  will  serve  to  illustrate  the  process  (Fig.  65).  The  data  are 
from  observations  on  a 12-inch  cast-iron  water  main  very  carefully  laid  in  a tangent  some 
3500  feet  long,  the  loss  in  1000  feet  of  which  was  measured. 


134 


Flow  in  Pipes  and  Channels 


C = center  of  gravity  or  mean  point  of  the  whole  group 
A = center  of  gravity  of  part  of  group  above  C 
B = center  of  gravity  of  part  of  group  below  C 
Ch=hf  coordinate  of  (7,  Cv=  v coordinate  of  C 

Ah  =hf  coordinate  of  A,  Av  = t coordinate  of  A 

Bh=hf  coordinate  of  B,  Bv  = v coordinate  of  B 


Observed  Data 


No. 

V 

Ft.  per  sec 

hf 

Ft  of  water  log  v 

Logarithms 

log  hf 

1 

4.794 

6.515 

0.68071 

I 0.81391 

| 

2 

4.667 

5.577 

.6690 

Sum  =3.1667  ,7464 

Sum  =3.4641 

3 

4.155 

5.100 

.6186 

^mean  =0.63334  .7076' 

Lmean  =0.69282 

4 

3.998 

4.002 

.6018 

I =Ar  .6023 

[ =Ah 

5 

3.950 

3.926 

. 5966 J 

1 .5939J 

1 

6 

3.519 

3.566 

,54641 

I .55221 

1 

7 

3.252 

2.888 

.5122 

Sum  =2.3715  .4606 

Sum  =2.0046 

8 

3.208 

2.942 

,5062 

?unean  =0.47430  .4686 

>Mean  = 0.40092 

9 

2.943 

2.374 

.4688 

=Bv  .3755 

=Bh 

10 

2.177 

1.405 

.3379J 

1 .1477J 

1 

Sum 

mean 

= 5.5382 
= 0.55382 

Sum  = 5.4687 
=Cv  mean  = 0.54687 

=Ch 

Av—Cv  =0.63334—0 . 55382  = 0 . 07952  Ah—Ch  = 0 . 69282—0 . 54687  =0 . 14595 
Cv—Bv  =0 . 55382—0.47430  = 0.07952  Ch—Bh  =0.54687—0.40092  =0 . 14595 

Since  Av — Cv=Cv — Bv  and  Ah — Ch  = Ch — Bh,  the  three  points  A,  C,  and  B are  in  a 
straight  line,  which  fact  checks  the  accuracy  of  the  work. 

N = tangent  of  inclination  of  line  ACB 

Ah-Ch  Ch-Bh  Ah-Bh  0-14592 
~ Av-Cv  “ Cv-Bv  ~ Av-Bv  ~ 0.07952 — 1 ,835 

ss& 

Since  log  m =log  hj — n log  v , using  the  coordinates  of  C 
log  m = 0 . 54687—1 . 835X0 . 55382 

= 0.54687— 1.01626  =9.53051=  log  0.3393,  and  m = 0.3393 

The  equation  for  this  12-inch  pipe  is  therefore  hf = 0.3393  cl. 835  L/1000. 

Remark : Evidently  the  v coordinates  must  be  divided  between  the  same  pair  of  obser- 
vations as  the  hf  coordinates.  The  mathematical  determination  of  what  group  should 
include  a point  whose  v coordinate  is  on  one  side  of  C and  whose  hf  coordinate  is  on  the 
other,  depends  on  whether  the  point  itself  is  above  or  below  a normal  to  the  line  ACB 
through  C.  This  can  usually  be  established  by  plotting  the  logarithms  on  ordinary  cross- 
section  paper,  or  the  observations  on  logarithmic  paper. 

To  introduce  the  diameter  into  the  equation,  a series  of  values  of  m and  N for  pipes 
of  different  diameters  must  be  obtained.  The  range  of  N is  relatively  small,  the  limits  for 
all  reliable  pipe  experiments  on  record  being  from  1.70  to  2.08,  and  if  the  pipes  are  of  the 
same  character  of  surface  and  alignment  the  value  of  N will  be  constant.  It  is,  therefore, 
only  necessary  to  consider  the  variation  of  m,  which  depends  upon  the  area  of  the  cross- 
section  or  upon  D and  upon  the  roughness.  Evidently  m varies  inversely  as  some  power  of 
the  diameter,  and  for  1 /D  =0,  m =0  for  any  velocity,  so  the  curve  representing  the  relation 
between  m and  D will  be  m =KD — x.  Proceeding  in  the  same  manner  as  before  an  average 
value  of  x =1.25  will  be  obtained,  and  the  formula  for  pipe  of  the  same  character  as  that  in 
the  above  experiment  is 

_K»1835  L _o.3svm  . L 

hf~D  1-25  • 1000  or  hf~  D1'25  ’ 1000 

for  average  conditions,  and  this  may  be  transposed  to 

v = 73.54  D°'m  S °*535  or  v = 185  7*0-66830.535 


135 


Variations  in  Diameter 


Variations  in  Diameter 

Relation  of  Diameter  of  Pipe  to  Quantity  Discharged.  In  terms  of  C for  Chezy’s 
formula. 

Q =7r/SC^7D5 

in  terms  of  Fanning’s  coefficient  f,  Q = 7r/4  \ 

\4  / L 

Approximately  for  rough  pipe  Q =1000  D^/2s^/2 
and  for  smooth  pipe  Q =2  X1000  D5/2si/2 

Roughness.  The  effect  of  roughness  in  a water  pipe  is  in  general  to  retard  the  flow 
or  increase  the  loss  in  head.  This  is  accomplished  by  reducing  the  velocity  of  the  water- 
at  the  surface  of  contact,  thus  producing  a general  reduction  in  velocity  and  also  causing 
cross  currents  or  eddies  which  use  up  the  energy  in  the  stream.  Roughness  decreases  C 
and  increases  / and  K in  the  foregoing  formulas.  It  also  increases  N somewaht 
in  the  exponential  formula. 


Curvature.  The  effect  of 
curvature  is  to  increase  the  loss  of 
head.  This  increased  loss  is  partly 
due  to  the  cross  currents  and  eddies 
set  up  in  the  bend,  but  also  to  the 
changes  of  velocity  along  the  stream 
lines  and  increased  friction  along 
the  walls  of  the  channels  due  to 
increased  velocities  over  part  of  the 
circumference.  The  loss  of  head 
due  to  a curve  may  be  stated  in 
terms  of  the  velocity  head  hv  or, 
better,  in  terms  of  the  equivalent 
length  of  straight  pipe  which 
would  give  the  same  loss  as  the 
curve.  Experiments  upon  the  loss 
of  head  in  pipes  show  the  radius  of 
the  curve  of  minimum  resistance  for 
a right-angled  bend  to  be  about 
three  diameters  of  the  pipe.  For 
six-inch  pipe  the  loss  due  to  such 
a curve  is  about  the  same  as  that 
in  eight  feet  of  straight  pipe,  and 
for  a thirty-inch  pipe  about  the 
same  as  that  in  forty  feet  of  straight 
pipe.  For  intermediate  sizes  the 
loss  may  be  expected  to  fall  between 
these  limits  and  to  vary  approxi- 
mately as  the  diameter. 


Fig.  65.  Logarithmic  Plotting 


Expansions  when  sudden  always  produce  eddies  which  increase  the  loss  of  head. 
Consider  two  sections  of  a pipe,  1 and  2;  1 to  be  taken  at  a point  where  normal 
condition  of  flow  exists  before  expansion  and  2 after  expansion. 


136 


Flow  in  Pipes  and  Channels 


If  vi  and  V2  are  the  velocities  and  A 1 and  A 2 the  areas  at  the  two  sections 
then  the  loss  of  head  due  to  this  sudden  enlargement 

hfe  = ^±2  or  hfe=  — 

2 g ' [_Ai  J zg 

According  to  St.  Venant,  this  quantity  should  be  increased  by  v 2/18  g, 
but  this  correction  is  so  small  as  a rule  that  it  can  be  neglected,  and  more 
recent  experiments  indicate  that  the  formula  is  as  likely  to  give  results  in 
excess  as  otherwise. 

Contraction  when  sudden  produces  an  effect  upon  a stream  very 
similar  to  a sharp  orifice;  that  is,  just  beyond  the  contraction  occurs  the 
point  of  minimum  cross-section  of  the  stream  or  the  “vena  contracta.,, 
There  result  not  only  the  loss  of  head  due  to  the  contraction  of  the  stream, 
but  also  that  due  to  the  reenlargement  of  it  after  passing  the  “vena  con- 
tracta.”  If  v is  the  velocity  under  conditions  of  normal  flow  in  the  pipe 
after  passing  the  contraction  and  C is  the  coefficient  of  contraction,  the 
same  in  this  case  as  for  a sharp  orifice,  then  the  loss  of  head  due  to  the 
contraction  is 


According  to  St.  Venant  this  quantity  should  be  increased  by  v 2/18  g. 
Also  it  may  be  written  hfc=  Ccv  2 /2  g,  where  Cc  varies  from  0.42  to  0.53. 
A fair  assumption  to  make  is  Cc  =0.5.  This  may  also  be  taken  as  the  loss 
of  head  due  to  sharp-edged  entrance  into  a pipe.  The  value  of  C is  probably 
too  high  for  small  pipes  and  too  low  for  large  pipes. 

Obstructions.  If  the  sectional  area  of  a pipe  be  gradually  decreased 
and  then  gradually  increased  as  in  the  case  of  a Venturi  meter,  the  loss  of 
head  for  moderate  velocities  is  not  much  increased  over  that  due  to  normal 
flow.  When  the  obstruction  causes  a sudden  contraction  or  expansion  of 
the  stream  or  there  is  discontinuity  of  the  pipe  wall,  the  loss  of  head  is 
increased. 

Valves.  The  losses  due  to  valves  in  pipe  lines  have  been  investigated 
with  accuracy  in  only  a few  instances.  From  these  experiments  it  appears 
that  a fully  open  gate  valve  in  a pipe  causes  a loss  of  head  corresponding  to 
about  six  diameters  of  length  of  the  pipe. 


137 


Measurement  of  Flowing  Water 


MEASUREMENT  OF  FLOWING  WATER 

(From  Kent’s  Mechanical  Engineers’  Pocket  Book.) 

Piezometer.  If  a vertical  or  oblique  tube  be  inserted  into  a pipe  con- 
taining water  under  pressure,  the  water  will  rise  in  the  former,  and  the 
vertical  height  to  which  it  rises  will  be  the  head  producing  the  pressure 
at  the  point  where  the  tube  is  attached.  Such  a tube  is  called  a piezom- 
eter or  pressure  measure.  If  the  water  in  the  piezometer  falls  below  its 
proper  level  it  shows  that  the  pressure  in  the  main  pipe  has  been  reduced 
by  an  obstruction  between  the  piezometer  and  the  reservoir.  If  the  water 
rises  above  its  proper  level  it  indicates  that  the  pressure  there  has  been 
increased  by  an  obstruction  beyond  the  piezometer. 

If  we  imagine  a pipe  full  of  water  to  be  provided  with  a number  of 
piezometers,  then  a line  joining  the  tops  of  the  columns  of  water  in  them 
is  the  hydraulic  grade-line. 

Pitot  Tube.  The  Pitot  tube  is  used  for  measuring  the  velocity  of 
fluids  in  motion.  It  has  been  used  with  great  success  in  measuring  the 
flow  of  natural  gas.  (S.  W.  Robinson,  Report  Ohio  Geol.  Survey,  1890.) 
(See  also  Van  Nostrand’s  Mag.,  Vol.  XXXV.)  It  is  simply  a tube  so 
bent  that  a short  leg  extends  into  the  current  of  fluid  flowing  from  a 
tube,  with  the  plane  of  the  entering  orifice  opposed  at  right  angles  to 
the  direction  of  the  current.  The  pressure  caused  by  the  impact  of  the 
current  is  transmitted  through  the  tube  to  a pressure-gage  of  any  kind, 
such  as  a column  of  water  or  of  mercury,  or  a Bourdon  spring-gage.  From 
the  pressure  thus  indicated  and  the  known  density  and  temperature  of 
the  flowing  fluid  is  obtained  the  head  corresponding  to  the  pressure,  and 
from  this  the  velocity.  In  a modification  of  the  Pitot  tube  described  by 
Professor  Robinson,  there  are  two  tubes  inserted  into  the  pipe  conveying 
the  gas,  one  of  which  has  the  plane  of  the  orifice  at  right  angles  to  the 
current,  to  receive  the  static  pressure  plus  the  pressure  due  to  impact;  the 
other  has  the  plane  of  its  orifice  parallel  to  the  current  so  as  to  receive  the 
static  pressure  only.  These  tubes  are  connected  to  the  legs  of  a U tube 
partly  filled  with  mercury,  which  then  registers  the  difference  in  pressure 
in  the  two  tubes,  from  which  the  velocity  may  be  calculated.  Comparative 
tests  of  Pitot  tubes  with  gas-meters,  for  measurement  of  the  flow, of  natural 
gas,  have  shown  an  agreement  within  3%. 

It  appears  from  experiments  made  by  W.  M.  White,  described  in  a 
paper  before  the  Louisiana  Eng’s  Socy.,  1901,  by  Williams,  Hubbell  and 
Fenkel  (Trans,  A.  S.  C.  E.,  1901),  and  by  W.  B.  Gregory  (Trans,  A.  S. 
M.  E.,  1903),  that  in  the  formula  for  the  Pitot  tube,  V-  c V 2gH , in 
which  V is  the  velocity  of  the  current  in  feet  per  second,  H the  head  in 
feet  of  the  fluid  corresponding  to  the  pressure  measured  by  the 
tube,  and  c an  experimental  coefficient,  c = 1 when  the  plane  at  the  point  of 
the  tube  is  exactly  at  right  angles  with  the  direction  of  the  current,  and 
when  the  static  pressure  is  correctly  measured.  The  total  pressure  pro- 


138 


Measurement  of  Flowing  Water 


duced  by  a jet  striking  an  extended  plane  surface  at  right  angles  to  it, 
and  escaping  parallel  to  the  plate,  equals  twice  the  product  of  the  area 
of  the  jet  into  the  pressure  calculated  from  the  “head  due  to  the  velocity/’ 

and  for  this  case  H — 2X  — , instead  of  — ;but  as  found  in  White’s 
2 g 2 g 

experiments  the  maximum  pressure  at  the  point  on  the  plate  exactly 

V2  . 

opposite  the  jet  corresponds  to  h— — . Experiments  made  with  four  differ- 

2 9 

ent  shapes  of  nozzles  placed  under  the  center  of  a falling  stream  of  water 
showed  that  the  pressure  produced  was  capable  of  sustaining  a column  of 
water  almost  exactly  equal  to  the  height  of  the  falling  water. 

Tests  by  J.  A.  Knesche  (Indust.  Eng’g,  Nov.,  1909),  in  which  a Pitot 
tube  was  inserted  in  a 4-inch  water  pipe,  gave  <7  = about  0.77  for  veloci- 
ties of  2.5  to  8 feet  per  second,  and  smaller  values  for  lower  velocities. 
He  holds  that  the  coefficient  of  a tube  should  be  determined  by  experiment 
before  its  readings  can  be  considered  accurate. 

Maximum  and  Mean  Velocities  in  Pipes.  Williams,  Hubbell  and 
Fenkel  (Trans.  A.  S.  C.  E.,  1901)  found  a ratio  of  0.84  between  the 
mean  and  the  maximum  velocities  of  water  flowing  in  closed  circular 
conduits,  under  normal  conditions,  at  ordinary  velocities;  whereby  obser- 
vations of  velocity  taken  at  the  center  under  such  conditions,  with  a 
properly  rated  Pitot  tube,  may  be  relied  on  to  give  results  within  3%  of 
correctness. 

The  Venturi  Meter,  invented  by  Clemens  Herschel,  and  described 
in  a pamphlet  issued  by  the  Builders’  Iron  Foundry  of  Providence,  R.  I., 
is  named  for  Venturi,  who  first  called  attention,  in  1796,  to  the  relation 
between  the  velocities  and  pressures  of  fluids  when  flowing  through  con- 
verging and  diverging  tubes.  It  consists  of  two  parts, — the  tube,  through 
which  the  water  flows,  and  the  recorder,  which  registers  the  quantity  of 
water  that  passes  through  the  tube.  The  tube  takes  the  shape  of  two 
truncated  cones  joined  in  their  smallest  diameters  by  a short  throat-piece. 
At  the  up-stream  end  and  at  the  throat  there  are  pressure-chambers,  at 
which  points  the  pressures  are  taken. 

The  action  of  the  tube  is  based  on  that  property  which  causes  the 
small  section  of  a gently  expanding  frustum  of  a cone  to  receive,  without 
material  resultant  loss  of  head,  as  much  water  at  the  smallest  diameter  as 
is  discharged  at  the  large  end,  and  on  that  further  property  which  causes 
the  pressure  of  the  water  flowing  through  the  throat  to  be  less,  by  virtue 
of  its  greater  velocity,  than  the  pressure  at  the  up-stream  end  of  the  tube, 
each  pressure  being  at  the  same  time  a function  of  the  velocity  at  that 
point  and  of  the  hydrostatic  pressure  which  would  obtain  were  the  water 
motionless  within  the  pipe. 


139 


Measurement  by  Venturi  Tubes 

— - 

The  recorder  is  connected  with  the  tube  by  pressure-pipes  which  lead 
to  it  from  the  chambers  surrounding  the  up-stream  end  and  the  throat  of 
the  tube.  It  may  be  placed  in  any  convenient  position  within  1000  feet 
of  the  meter.  It  is  operated  by  a weight  and  clockwork.  The  difference 
of  pressure  or  head  at  the  entrance  and  at  the  throat  of  the  meter  is  bal- 
anced in  the  recorder  by  the  difference  of  level  in  two  columns  of  mercury 
in  cylindrical  receivers,  one  within  the  other.  The  inner  carries  a float,  the 
position  of  which  is  indicative  of  the  quantity  of  water  flowing  through  the 
tube.  By  its  rise  and  fall  the  float  varies  the  time  of  contact  between  an 
integrating  drum  and  the  counters  by  which  the  successive  readings  are 
registered. 

There  is  no  limit  to  the  sizes  of  the  meters  nor  the  quantity  of  water 
that  may  be  measured.  Meters  with  24-inch,  36-inch,  48-inch,  and  even 
20-foot  tubes  can  be  readily  made. 

Measurement  by  Venturi  Tubes  (Trans.  A.  S.  C.  E.,  Nov.,  1887. 
and  Jan.,  1888).  Mr.  Herschel  recommends  the  use  of  a Venturi  tube 
inserted  in  the  force  main  of  the  pumping  engine,  for  determining  the 
quantity  of  water  discharged.  Such  a tube  applied  to  a 24-inch  main  has 
a total  length  of  about  20  feet.  At  a distance  of  4 feet  from  the  end  nearest  ' 
the  engine  the  inside  diameter  of  the  tube  is  contracted  to  a throat  having 
a diameter  of  about  8 inches.  A pressure  gage  is  attached  to  each  of  two 
chambers,  the  one  surrounding  and  communicating  with  the  entrance  ! 
or  mam  pipe,  the  other  with  the  throat.  According  to  experiments  made 
upon  two  tubes  of  this  kind,  one  4 inches  in  diameter  at  the  throat  and  12 
inches  at  the  entrance,  and  the  other  about  36  inches  in  diameter  at  the 
throat  and  9 feet  at  its  entrance,  the  quantity  of  water  which  passes  through 
the  tube  is  very  nearly  the  theoretical  discharge  through  an  opening  having 
an  area  equal  to  that  of  the  throat,  and  a velocity  which  is  that  due  to  the 
difference  in  head  shown  by  the  two  gages.  Mr.  Herschel  states  that  the 
coefficient  for  these  two  widely  varying  sizes  of  tubes,  and  for  a wide  range  : 
of  velocity  through  the  pipe,  was  found  to  be  within  2%,  either  way,  of 
98%.  In  other  words,  the  quantity  of  water  flowing  through  the  tube  per 
second  is  expressed  within  two  per  cent  by  the  formula  W = 0.98  A^Tjh, 
in  which  A is  the  area  of  the  throat  of  the  tube,  h the  head,  in  feet,  corres- 
ponding to  the  difference  in  the  pressure  of  the  water  entering  the  tube  and 
that  found  at  the  throat,  and  g = 32.16. 


i 


140 


The  Miner’s  Inch 


THE  MINER’S  INCH 

(From  Merriman’s  Treatise  on  Hydraulics.) 

The  miner’s  inch  may  be  roughly  defined  to  be  the  quantity  of  water 
which  will  flow  from  a vertical  standard  orifice  one  inch  square,  when 
the  head  on  the  center  of  the  orifice  is  inches.  The  coefficient  of 
discharge  is  about  0.623,  and  accordingly  the  actual  discharge  from  the 
orifice  in  cubic  feet  per  second  is 

g = — X0. 623X8. 02  \f— = 0.0255, 

144  12 

and  the  discharge  in  one  minute  is  60x0.0255  = 1.53  cubic  feet.  The 
mean  value  of  one  miner’s  inch  is  therefore  about  1.5  cubic  feet  per  minute. 

The  actual  value  of  the  miner’s  inch,  however,  differs  considerably 
in  different  localities.  Bowie  states  that  in  different  counties  of  Cali- 
fornia it  ranges  from  1.20  to  1.76  cubic  feet  per  minute.  The  reason 
for  these  variations  is  due  to  the  fact  that  when  water  is  bought  for  mining 
or  irrigating  purposes,  a much  larger  quantity  than  one  miner’s  inch  is 
required,  and  hence  larger  orifices  than  one  square  inch  are  needed.  Thus 
at  Smarts ville,  a vertical  orifice  or  module,  4 inches  deep  and  250  inches 
long,  with  a head  of  7 inches  above  the  top  edge,  is  said  to  furnish  1000 
miner’s  inches.  Again  at  Columbia  Hill,  a module  12  inches  deep  and  12 % 
inches  wide,  with  a head  of  6 inches  above  the  upper  edge,  is  said  to  furnish 
200  miner’s  inches.  In  Montana  the  customary  method  of  measurement 
is  through  a vertical  rectangle,  one  inch  deep,  with  a head  on  the  center 
of  the  orifice  of  4 inches,  and  the  number  of  miner’s  inches  is  said  to  be  the 
same  as  the  number  of  linear  inches  in  the  rectangle ; thus  under  the  given 
head  an  orifice  one  inch  deep  and  60  inches  long  would  furnish  60  miner’s 
inches.  The  discharge  of  this  is  said  to  be  about  1.25  cubic  feet  per  minute, 
or  75  cubic  feet  per  hour. 

The  following  are  the  values  of  the  miner’s  inch  in  different  parts 
of  the  United  States.  In  California  and  Montana  it  is  established  by 
law  that  40  miner’s  inches  shall  be  the  equivalent  of  one  cubic  foot  per 
second,  and  in  Colorado  38.4  miner’s  inches  is  the  equivalent.  In  other 
States  and  Territories  there  is  no  legal  value,  but  by  common  agreement 
50  miner’s  inches  is  the  equivalent  of  one  cubic  foot  per  second  in  Arizona, 
Idaho,  Nevada,  and  Utah;  this  makes  the  miner’s  inch  equal  to  1.2  cubic 
feet  per  minute. 

A module  is  an  orifice  which  is  used  in  selling  water,  and  which  under 
a constant  head  is  to  furnish  a given  number  of  miner’s  inches,  or  a given 
quantity  per  second.  The  size  and  proportions  of  modules  vary  greatly  in 
different  localities,  but  in  all  cases  the  important  feature  to  be  observed 
is  that  the  head  should  be  maintained  nearly  constant  in  order  that  the 
consumer  may  receive  the  amount  of  water  for  which  he  bargains  and  no 
more. 


141 


The  Miner’s  Inch 


The  simplest  method  of  maintaining  a constant  head  is  by  placing 
the  module  in  a chamber  which  is  provided  with  a gate  that  regulates 
the  entrance  of  water  from  the  main  reservoir  or  canal.  This  gate  is 
raised  or  lowered  by  an  inspector  once  or  twice  a day  so  as  to  keep  the 
surface  of  the  water  in  the  chamber  at  a given  mark.  This  plan  is  a 
costly  one,  on  account  of  the  wages  of  the  inspector,  except  in  works 
where  many  modules  are  used  and  where  a daily  inspection  is  necessary 
in  any  event,  and  it  is  not  well  adapted  to  cases  where  there  are  frequent 
and  considerable  fluctuations  in  the  surface  of  the  water  in  the  feeding 
canal. 

Numerous  methods  have  been  devised  to  secure  a constant  head  by 
automatic  appliances;  for  instance,  the  gate  which  admits  water  into 
the  chamber  may  be  made  to  rise  and  fall  by  means  of  a float  upon  the 
surface;  the  module  itself  may  be  made  to  decrease  in  size  when  the  water 
rises,  and  to  increase  when  it  falls,  by  a gate  or  by  a tapering  plug  which 
moves  in  and  out  and  whose  motion  is  controlled  by  a float.  These  self- 
acting contrivances,  however,  are  liable  to  get  out  of  order,  and  require 
to  be  inspected  more  or  less  frequently.  Another  method  is  to  have  the 
water  flow  over  the  crest  of  a weir  as  soon  as  it  reaches  a certain  height. 

The  use  of  the  miner’s  inch,  or  of  a module,  as  a standard  for  selling 
water,  is  awkward  and  confusing,  and  for  the  sake  of  uniformity  it  is 
greatly  to  be  desired  that  water  should  always  be  bought  and  sold  by  the 
CU  Per  second-  Only  in  this  way  can  comparison  readily  be  made, 

and  the  consumer  be  sure  of  obtaining  exact  value  for  his  money. 

The  cut,  Fig.  66,  shows  the  form  of  measuring-box  ordinarily  used, 
and  the  following  table  gives  the  discharge  in  cubic  feet  per  minute  of  a 
miner’s  inch  of  water,  as  measured  under  the  various  heads  and  different 
lengths  and  heights  of  apertures  used  in  California. 

Weirs 

Sharp- edged  Weirs.  When  an  obstruction  is  placed  in  an  open 
channel,  so  that  water  is  caused  to  flow  over  it,  it  is  called  a dam  or  weir. 

If  the  top  of  the  weir  be  a thin  straight 
edge,  the  conditions  of  flow  are  similar 
to  those  that  would  exist  in  an  orifice  in 
a thin  wall  if  the  side  contractions  were 
suppressed  and  the  head  fell  so  low  that 
the  water  did  not  fill  the  orifice  to  its 
top.  If  the  portions  of  the  dam  near 
the  walls  of  the  channel  are  raised 
above  the  level  of  the  rest  so  that  water 
Fig/65— SHARP-EDGED  WEIR  does  not  flow  over  them,  the  overflow- 

ing jet  is  contracted  at  the  sides  as  in 
the  case"  of  an  orifice.  The  general  expression  for  the  discharge  of  water 
over  a weir  is  Q = %CLH  ^2 gH 

wherein  H is  the  height  above  the  creskof  the  weir  to  the  level  of  still  water 


142 


The  Miner's  Inch 


FIG.  66.  MINER’S  INCHgMEASURING  BOX 


Miner’s  Inch  Measurements 

(Pelton  Water  Wheel  Company) 


Length  of 
opening 
in  inches 

Opening  2 inches  high 

Opening  4 inches  high 

Head  to 
center, 
5 inches 

Head  to 
center, 

6 inches 

Head  to 
center, 
7 inches 

Head  to 
center, 
5 inches 

Head  to 
center, 
6 inches 

Head  to 
center, 
7 inches 

Cubic  feet 

Cubic  feet 

Cubic  feet 

Cubic  feet 

Cubic  feet 

Cubic  feet 

4 

1.348 

1.473 

1 

.589 

1.320 

1.450 

1.570 

6 

1 .355 

1.480 

1 

.596 

1.336 

1.470 

1.595 

8 

1 . 359 

1.484 

1 

.600 

1.344 

1.481 

1.608 

10 

1.361 

1.485 

1 

.602 

1.349 

1.487 

1.615 

12 

1.363 

1.487 

1 

.604 

1.352 

1.491 

1.620 

14 

1.364 

1.488 

1 

.604 

1.354 

1.494 

1.623 

16 

1 . 365 

1.489 

1 

.605 

1.356 

1.496 

1.626 

18 

1.365 

1.489 

1 

.606 

1.357 

'1.498 

1.628 

20 

1.365 

1.490 

1 

.606 

1.359 

1.499 

1 .630 

22 

1.366 

1.490 

1 

.607 

1.359 

1.500 

1.631 

24 

1.366 

1.490 

1 

.607 

1.360 

1.501 

1.632 

26 

1.366 

1.490 

1 

.607 

1.361 

1.502 

1.633 

28 

1.367 

1.491 

1 

.607 

1.361 

1.503 

1.634 

30 

1.367 

1.491 

1 

.608 

1.362 

1.503 

1.635 

40 

1,367 

1.492 

1 

.608 

1.363 

1.505 

1.637 

50 

1.368 

1.493 

1. 

.609 

1.364 

1.507 

1.639 

60 

1.368 

1.493 

1. 

.609 

1.365 

1.508 

1.640 

70 

1 .368 

1.493 

1. 

,609 

1.365 

1.508 

1.641 

80 

1.368 

1.493 

1. 

609 

1.366 

1.509 

1.641 

90 

1.369 

1.493 

1. 

610 

1.366 

1.509 

1.641 

100 

1.369 

1.494 

1. 

610 

1.36& 

1.509 

1.642 

— ■ 

Weirs 


and  L is  the  length  of  the  crest  over  which  the  water  flows.  Practically,  it 
is  not  possible  to  measure  H,  but  a head  h may  be  observed  to  the  surface 
of  the  stream  above  the  curve  of  depression  caused  by  the  weir,  and  to  this 
the  velocity  head  hv  due  to  the  velocity  va  with  which  the  water  approaches 
the  weir,  may  be  added  when  the  result  is  approximately  equal  to  H.  If  the 
velocity  of  approach  be  small,  h as  observed  may  be  treated  as  equal  to  H. 
C is  a coefficient  which  depends  upon  the  height  and  form  of  the  weir, 
whether  or  not  there  be  end  contractions,  the  character  of  the  weir  surface 
and  the  condition  of  the  water  on  the  downstream  side.  In  weir  formulas 
it  is  customary  to  combine  one  or  more  of  the  factors  %}  C,  and  2 g into  a 
single  coefficient. 

Four  Recognized  Formulas  for  the  discharge  of  weirs  are  as  follows, 
but  the  first  arid  the  fourth  are  the  most  important. 

The  Francis  Formula 

<2  = 3.33  LW'h  or  Q =3.33  L[(h+hv)s/2-hv3h] 

The  Fteley  and  Stearns  Formula 

Q = 3.31  LH3/2+0.007L  or  Q = 3.31L(/i  + l .5/w)3/2+0.007L 
The  Hamilton  Smith  Formula 

<2  = 3.29(L+H/7)ffV2  or  Q =3 .29  (h+iyhv)3/* 

The  Bazin  Formula 

Q =mLh yl2gh,  where  ra  = ^0.405+^'^-^  £l+0.55^“^  J 


in  which  a is  the  height  of  the  crest  of  the  weir  above  the  bottom  of  the 
channel  of  approach.  For  weirs  with  end  contractions,  Francis  concluded 
that  L in  the  above  formulas  should  be  replaced  by  L -0.1  nH,  where  n is 
the  number  of  full  end  contractions.  This  correction  has  been  generally 
accepted,  but  it  is  by  no  means  accurate,  and  for  exact  work  in  measuring 
water  a weir  without  end  contractions  is  to  be  preferred.  These  formulas 
all  apply  to  a weir  with  a vertical  upstream  face,  a sharp  edge  and  with 
free  access  of  air  to  the  under  side  of  the  overfalling  sheet  of  water. 

Triangular  or  V-shaped  Weir.  This  form  of  weir,  suggested  by  Prof. 
Thomson  of  Dublin,  possesses  the  peculiarity  that,  whatever  the  heads,  the 
sections  of  the  stream  are  similar,  and  hence  it  may  be 
expected  to  have  a coefficient  more  nearly  constant 
than  the  ordinary  weir  and  be  particularly  well  adapt- 
ed to  the  measurement  of  water  where  the  flow  varies 
through  a considerable  range.  The  coefficient  will  vary 
for  different  inclinations  of  the  sides  of  the  notch.  For 
a sharp-edged  weir  in  which  the  sides  make  an  angle 
of  90°  with  each  other,  since  L = 2 h,  the  discharge  is 
Q =2.6  /F/2. 

No  experiments  have  been  made  upon  weirs  of 
this  type  when  other  than  sharp  edged  with  vertical 
faces,  but  the  effects  of  inclination  and  rounding  Fig.  67-Triangular  Weir 
may  be  expected  to  affect  them  similarly  to  rectangular  weirs. 


144 





Weirs 


Rounding  the  Upstream  Corner  of  the  crest  of  a weir  increases  the 
discharge.  With  flat-crested  weirs  Bazin  found  this  effect  to  amount  to  as 
much  as  13%  where  the  radius  of  the  rounding  was  4 inches  and  the  breadth 
of  crest  6.56  feet.  Fteley  and  Stearns,  with  weirs  up  to  one  inch  in  breadth, 
found  the  rounding  to  be  equivalent  to  increasing  the  head  by  hR  = 0.7  R, 
where  R is  the  radius  of  the  rounding. 

Inclining  the  Upstream  Face  away  from  the  current  decreases  the 
contraction  and  increases  the  discharge  as  much  as  10%  when  the  slope  is 
one  of  45°.  If  the  inclination  be  in  the  opposite  direction,  the  contraction 
is  increased  and  the  discharge  decreased.  With  a 45°  slope,  the  decrease 
may  be  as  much  as  7%.  Inclining  the  DOWN  STREAM  FACE  does  not 
materially  alter  the  discharge  until  the  slope  becomes  at  least  3 horizontal 
to  1 vertical,  when  the  discharge  is  reduced. 

Rounding  the  Entire  Crest  reduces  the  discharge  for  low  heads,  but 
increases  it  for  those  wherein  the  curve  of  the  crest  approaches  the  curve 
of  the  natural  under  side  of  the  sheet.  By  a combination  of  a rounded 
crest  and  an  inclined  upstream  slope,  the  discharge  may  be  increased  20% 
above  that  of  the  sharp-edged  weir. 

Flat  Crests  descrease  the  discharge  until  the  head  becomes  so  high  that 
the  sheet  jumps  clear  of  the  downstream  corner,  when  they  have  no  effect. 
A broad  flat  crest  may  reduce  the  discharge  25%  below  that  of  the  sharp 
edge. 

The  Sheet  of  Water  adhering  to  the  downstream  face  of  a vertical 
sharp-edged  weir  has  increased  the  discharge  about  28%.  The  sheet  being 
wetted,  that  is  depressed  and  the  space  between  it  and  the  weir  filled  with 
water,  due  to  the  formation  there  of  a partial  vacuum,  has  increased  the 
discharge  about  15%.  The  sheet  being  depressed, but  the  space  only  partially 
filled  with  water,  has  increased  the  discharge  about  6%. 

Submerged  Weirs.  When  water  on  the  downstream  side  of  the  weir 
rises  above  the  level  of  the  crest,  the  weir  is  said  to  be  submerged.  If  hu  is 
the  head  observed  on  the  upstream  side  and  h is 
the  difference  of  head  on  the  two  sides,  the  usual 
formula  for  the  discharge  of  a submerged  weir  is 
Q = CL  V 2gh(hu-h/3 ) 

where  C for  a sharp  edge  varies  from  0.58  to  0.63. 
On  account  of  the  difficulty  of  measuring  hi,  the 
Fig.  68— Submerged  Weir  head  in  the  lower  pool,  because  of  the  turbulence 
there,  accurate  results  with  this  formula  are  impossible.  Experiment  shows 
that  so  long  as  the  water  flowing  over  the  weir  plunges  to  the  bottom  of  the 
channel  below  or  dives  under  that  in  the  lower  pool,  the  discharge  of  the 
weir  is  not  decreased  more  than  10%  by  the  submergence.  In  rounded 
weirs  it  is  possible  to  submerge  the  crests  to  fully  30%  of  hu  without  vary- 
ing the  discharge  from  that  for  a free  weir  under  the  head  hu  more  than  the 
above  percent;  and  for  submergences  of  less  than  10%  of  hu  the  discharge 
is  likely  to  be  increased  by  the  exclusion  of  air  behind  the  sheet. 


145 


Installation 


FIG.  69  A LOCK-BAR  PIPE  LINE  IN  HILLY  COUNTRY 


146 


Weirs 


The  Weir  affords  the  most  commonly  used  method  of  measuring  water 
in  moderately  large  quantities.  The  standard  weir,  or  sharp-edged  weir 
consists  of  a vertical  partition  across  a channel  with  its  top  edge  horizontal’ 
sharp  cornered  and  narrow  enough  so  that  at  the  heads  used  the  overflowing 
sheet  jumps  from  the  upstream  edge  clear  of  the  downstream  corner.  Such 
weirs  may  be  either  with  or  without  end  contractions.  A weir  with  end 
contractions  is  one  whose  crest  extends  only  part  way  across  the  channel 
and  is  terminated  by  partitions  in  its  plane,  with  their  vertical  edges  rising 
above  the  level  of  the  water  on  the  upstream  side.  Such  a weir  may  be 
compared  to  a rectangular  orifice  upon  which  the  head  has  fallen  below  the 
top*  A weir  without  end  contractions  is  one  which  extends  entirely  across 
the  channel.  If  a = height  of  crest  of  weir  above  bottom  of  channel  of 
approach,  Aw  = area  of  stream  in  the  plane  of  the  weir,  H = height  above  the 
crest  of  the  surface  of  still  water  upstream  from  the  weir,  &=head  above 
crest  as  observed,  vw  = velocity  in  and  perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  the 
weir,  then  the  formula  for  the  discharge  is  similar  to  that  for  the  orifice 
and  is 

Q = A = % CL  H*/ 2 = % CL 

SinceLH=L  ( h+hv ) =area  of  the  stream  above  the  crest  level  at  the  plane 
ot  still  water  and  CLH  is  the  area  in  the  plane  of  the  crest,  the  total  head 
producing  flow  is%  V2 g(h+hv). 

The  Francis  Formula.  The  coefficient  C in  this  formula  was  de- 
termined experimentally  by  James  B.  Francis  as  about  0.62,  and  by  com- 
bming  this  with,  % V2^~  the  well-known  coefficient  of  the  Francis  Formula 
3,33  is  obtained.  This  formula  was  considered  by  its  inventor  to  be  reliable 
between  heads  of  0.5  foot  and  2.00  feet.  Later  investigators  have  modified 
it  into  the  form : 


Q = 3 33L(h-\-l  Ahv)  3/2 

n*1  this  formula  the  process  is  as  follows:  Having  measured  the 

head  h at  a point  above  the  surface  curve  to  the  weir,  compute  an  approxi- 
mate value  of  the  discharge  by  the  equation  Qi=3.33  Lh 3/2.  Find  the 

approximate  velocity  at  the  plane  where  the  head  is  observed  by  the  equa- 
tion v = Qi  -fa)  and  the  velocity  head  by  h = v2/2g.  Then  Q is  obtained 
by  substitution  m the  above  formula,  and  should  be  within  3 to  4 percent  of 
correctness  if  the  head  is  not  more  than  30  percent  of  a and  had  been 
properly  measured,  and  the  sheet  is  fully  aerated  underneath. 

For  weirs  with  end  contractions  Francis  recommended  reducing  the 
length  L in  the  above  formula  by  0.1  i/for  each  full  end  contraction.  This 
correction  is  only  an  approximation  and,  for  accurate  gagings,  weirs  with 
end  contractions  should  not  be  used. 


147 


Installation 


148 


Weirs 


The  Bazin  Formula  is  the  most  accurate  one  for  wide  ranges  of  head, 
and  it  may  be  safely  applied  between  heads  of  0.2  foot  and  6 feet,  and  does 
not  require  a correction  for  velocity  of  approach,  as  it  is  based  upon  the 
observed  head  h.  It  applies  only  to  weirs  without  end  contractions  and  is 

«■(“+“)  [1+°J»Us)’]“’B*5 

and  the  following  tables  give  values  of  Q for  a weir  one  foot  long  and  for 
various  values  of  h and  a.  The  value  of  g used  in  computing  these  tables 
is  32.17  feet  per  second. 

Discharge  in  Cubic  Feet  per  Second  per  Foot  of 
Length  over  Sharp-edged  Vertical  Weirs 
without  End  Contractions 

Computed  by  Bazin’s  Formula 


Head 

h 


Height  in  feet  of  crest  of  weir  above  bottom  of 
channel  of  approach 


feet 

a =2 

a = 

= 3 

a = 

-4 

a = 

= 5 

a = 

-6 

a = 

= 7 

00 

II 

e 

0.2 

0.33 

0 

33 

0 

33 

0. 

33 

0 

33 

0. 

33 

0.33 

0.3 

0.58 

0 

58 

0 

58 

0. 

.58 

0. 

,58 

0. 

.58 

0.58 

0.4 

0.88 

0 

88 

0 

88 

0. 

.87 

0. 

.87 

0. 

.87 

0.87 

0.5 

1.23 

1 

21 

1 

21 

1. 

21 

1. 

21 

1 . 

21 

1.21 

0.6 

1.62 

1, 

,59 

1 

.59 

1 

.58 

1. 

.58 

1. 

.58 

1.58 

0.7 

2.04 

2. 

01 

1 

.99 

1 

.98 

1. 

.98 

1 

.98 

1.98 

0.8 

2.50 

2, 

.45 

2 

.43 

2, 

.42 

2 

.41 

2 

.41 

2.41 

0.9 

3.00 

2 

.93 

2 

.90 

2 

.88 

2 

.88 

2 

.87 

2.86 

1 .0 

3.53 

3 

.44 

3. 

.40 

3, 

.38 

3 

.36 

3 

.36 

3.35 

1.2 

4.68 

4 

.55 

4 

.48 

4 

.47 

4 

.42 

4 

.41 

4.40 

1 .4 

5.99 

5 

.78 

5 

.68 

5 

.62 

5 

.58 

5 

.56 

5.54 

1.5 

6.68 

6 

.44 

6 

.30 

6 

.23 

6 

.20 

6 

.18 

6.16 

1.6 

7.40 

7, 

.12 

6 

.97 

6 

.89 

6 

.84 

6 

.80 

6.78 

1.8 

8.93 

8 

.56 

8 

.37 

8 

.25 

8 

.18 

8. 

.13 

8.09 

2.0 

10.58 

10 

.12 

9 

.87 

9 

.72 

9 

.62 

9 

.55 

9.51 

2.2 

12.34 

11 

.77 

11 

.46 

11 

.27 

11 

.14 

11 

.06 

10.99 

2.4 

14.20 

13 

.53 

13 

.15 

12 

.91 

12 

.75 

12 

.64 

12.56 

2.5 

15.17 

14 

.45 

14 

.03 

13 

.76 

13 

.59 

13 

.47 

13.38 

2.6 

16.16 

15 

.38 

14 

.92 

14 

.63 

14 

.44 

14 

.30 

14.20 

2.8 

18.23 

17 

.32 

16 

.79 

16 

.44 

16 

.21 

16 

.04 

15.92 

3.0 

20.39 

19 

.36 

18 

.74 

18 

.33 

18 

.06 

17 

.86 

17.71 

3.2 

22.64 

21 

.48 

20 

.77 

20 

.31 

19 

.98 

19 

.75 

19.58 

3.4 

24.98 

23 

.70 

22 

.89 

22 

.36 

21 

.99 

21 

.72 

21.52 

3.5 

26.20 

24 

.83 

24 

.00 

23 

.43 

23 

.01 

22 

.73 

22.48 

3.6 

27.41 

25 

.99 

25 

.09 

24 

.49 

24 

.06 

23 

.75 

23.52 

3.8 

29.94 

28 

.38 

27 

.38 

26 

.70 

26 

.22 

25 

.87 

25.60 

4.0 

32.54 

30 

.84 

29 

.74 

28 

.99 

28 

.45 

28 

.05 

27.74 

4.2 

35.22 

33 

.39 

32 

.18 

31 

.35 

30 

.75 

30 

.30 

29.96 

4.4 

37.99 

36 

.01 

34 

.70 

33 

.78 

33 

.12 

32 

.62 

32.24 

4.6 

40.83 

38 

.71 

37 

.29 

36 

.29 

35 

.56 

35 

.01 

34.58 

4.8 

43.75 

41 

.49 

39 

.96 

38 

.87 

38 

.07 

37 

.46 

37.00 

5.0 

46.71 

44 

.31 

42 

.67 

41 

.49 

40 

.62 

39 

.96 

39.44 

5.2 

49.81 

47 

.27 

45 

.50 

44 

.23 

43 

.29 

42 

.57 

42.01 

5.4 

52.94 

50 

.23 

48 

.38 

47 

.02 

46 

.00 

45 

.22 

44.60 

5.6 

56.15 

53 

.33 

51 

.34 

49 

.88 

48 

.79 

47 

.94 

47.28 

5.8 

59.42 

56 

.45 

54 

.34 

52 

.79 

51 

.62 

50 

.71 

49.99 

6.0 

62.77 

59 

.65 

56 

.43 

55 

.78 

54 

.53 

53 

.55 

52.78 

149 


Measurement  of  Water 

Discharge  in  Cubic  Feet  per  Second  per  Foot  of  Length  over  Sharp-edged 
Vertical  Weirs  without  End  Contractions — Continued 

Computed  by  Bazin’s  Formula 

Head 

h, 

feet 

Height  in  feet  of  crest  of  weir  above  bottom  of  channel  of  approach 

a =9 

a = 

= 10 

a = 

= 12 

a = 16 

a = 20 

a =25 

a = 30 

0 2 

0.33 

0 

.33 

0 

.33 

0.33 

0.33 

0.33 

0.33 

o.3 

0.58 

0 

.58 

0 

.58 

0.58 

0.58 

0.58 

0.58 

0 4 

0.87 

0 

.87 

0 

.87 

0.87 

0.87 

0.87 

0.87 

0 5 

1.21 

1 

.21 

1 

.21 

1.21 

1.20 

1.20 

1.20 

0 6 

1.57 

1 

.57 

1 

.57 

1.57 

1.57 

1.57 

1.57 

0.7 

1.97 

1 

.97 

1 

,97 

1.97 

1.97 

1.97 

1.97 

0.8 

2.40 

2 

.40 

2 

.40 

2.40 

2.40 

2.40 

2.40 

0 9 

2.86 

2 

.86 

2 

.86 

2.86 

2.85 

2.85 

2.85 

1.0 

3.35 

3 

.34 

3 

.34 

3.33 

3.33 

3.33 

3.33 

1.2 

4.39 

4 

38 

4 

38 

4.37 

4.36 

4.36 

4.36 

1 .4 

5.53 

5 

52 

5 

51 

5.49 

5.49 

5.48 

5.48 

1.5 

6.14 

6 

13 

6 

12 

6.11 

6.10 

6.09 

6.09 

1.6 

6.76 

6 

74 

6 

73 

6.71 

6.69 

6.69 

6.69 

1.8 

8.07 

8 

05 

8 

02 

7.99 

7.98 

7.97 

7.96 

2.0 

9.47 

9 

44 

9 

40 

9.36 

9.34 

9.33 

9.32 

2.2 

10.95 

10 

91 

10 

86 

10.81 

10.78 

10.76 

10.75 

2.4 

12.50 

12 

45 

12 

39 

12.32 

12.28 

12.25 

12.24 

2.5 

13.31 

13 

26 

13 

18 

13.10 

13.06 

13.03 

13.01 

2.6 

14.13 

14 

07 

13 

99 

13.90 

13.85 

13.82 

13.80 

2.8 

15.83 

15 

76 

15 

66 

15.54 

15.48 

15.44 

15.42 

3.0 

17.60 

17 

.52 

17 

.39 

17.25 

17.18 

17.13 

17.10 

3.2 

19.45 

19 

.34 

19 

.19 

19.02 

18.93 

18.87 

18.83 

3.4 

21.36 

21. 

.24 

21. 

.06 

20.86 

20.75 

20.68 

20.63 

3.5 

22.38 

22 

.22 

22 

.00 

21.83 

21.69 

21.62 

21.60 

3.6 

23.34 

23 

.20 

22. 

,99 

22.75 

22.62 

22.53 

22.48 

3.8 

25.39 

25. 

23 

24. 

.99 

24.71 

24.56 

24.45 

24.39 

4.0 

27.51 

27. 

,32 

27. 

05 

26.72 

26.55 

26.42 

26.35 

4.2 

29.69 

29. 

.48 

29. 

,17 

28.79 

28.59 

28.45 

28.36 

4.4 

31.94 

31. 

70 

31. 

34 

30.92 

30.66 

30.52 

30.42 

4.6 

34.25 

33. 

.98 

33. 

58 

33.10 

32.84 

32.65 

32.53 

4.8 

36.62 

36. 

33 

35. 

88 

35.35 

35.05 

34.83 

34.70 

5.0 

39.03 

38. 

70 

38. 

21 

37.61 

37.28 

37.03 

36.88 

5.2 

41.56 

41. 

20 

40. 

65 

39.99 

39.61 

39.33 

39.17 

5.4 

44.11 

43. 

71 

43. 

12 

42.38 

41.96 

41.66 

41.47 

5.6 

46.74 

46. 

31 

45. 

65 

44.84 

44.38 

44.04 

43.83 

5.8 

49.41 

48. 

94 

48. 

22 

47.33 

46.83 

46.45 

46.22 

6.0 

52.15 

51. 

64 

50. 

86 

49.90 

49.34 

48.92 

48.67 

When  the  weir  is  so  high  that  the  velocity  of  the  approaching  water  is  practically  zero  Bazin’s 
formula  reduces  to 

/ 0.00984  \ , 

Q=  ^0.405+  ^ J Lh'l  2 gh 

At  low  heads,  less  than  0.2  of  a foot,  Bazin’s  Formula  gives  discharges  somewhat  too  high  and  the 
formula  proposed  by  Fteley  and  Stearns  is  recommended,  which  is: 

Q = 3.33Lff3/2+0.0065  L. 

The  results  by  this  formula  are  within  4 to  6 percent  of  the  experimental  values  for  heads  ranging  from 
0.2  to  0.007  ft.,  and  the  actual  discharges  were  generally  in  excess  of  those  given  by  the  formula.  It 
lolds  only  so  long  as  the  sheet  jumps  free  of  the  crest  and  the  space  behind  it  is  fully  aerated. 

150 


Weirs 


The  Flow  over  the  Irregular  Crests  may  be  computed  by  multiplying 
the  discharge  of  a standard  weir  of  the  same  height  and  length  and  at  the 
same  head  by  a 
factor  depending 
on  the  form  of  the 
crests.  The  fol- 
lowing tables  give 
the  multipliers  for 
various  forms  of 
weirs  (Fig.  71) 
as  determined 
from  experiments 
upon  full-size  mo- 
dels at  the  Hy- 
draulic Laborato- 
ry of  Cornell  Uni- 
versity: /7, 

Types  of  Weirs  and  Dams 


Multipliers  for  Flat-topped  Weirs.  Fig.  71A 


Head 

h, 

feet 

Width  of  flat  crest  in  feet 

6=0.48 

6 =0.93 

6=1.65 

6=3.17 

6=5.84 

6=8.98 

6 = 12.24 

6 = 16.30 

0.5 

0.902 

0.830 

0.819 

0.797 

0.785 

0.783 

0.783 

0.783 

1.0 

0.972 

0.904 

0.879 

0.812 

0.800 

0.798 

0.795 

0.792 

1.5 

1.000 

0.957 

0.910 

0.821 

0.807 

0.803 

0.802 

0.797 

2.0 

1.000 

0.989 

0.925 

0.821 

0.805 

0.800 

0.798 

0.795 

2.5 

1.000 

1.000 

0.932 

0.816 

0.800 

0.795 

0.792 

0.789 

3.0 

1.000 

1.000 

0.938 

0.813 

0.796 

0.791 

0.787 

0.784 

3.5 

1.000 

1.000 

0.942 

0.810 

0.793 

0.787 

0.783 

0.780 

4.0 

1.000 

1.000 

0.947 

0.808 

0.790 

0.783 

0.780 

0.777 

Multipliers  (m)  for  Triangular  Weirs.  Fig.  71B 

Head  h in  feet,  0.5  1.0  1.5  2.0  2.5  3.0  3.5  4.0 

For  6=6.65  ft,  m = 1.060  1.079  1.091  1.086  1.076  1.067  1.060  1.054 

For  6 = 11.25  ft,  m = 1.060  1.079  1.092  1.097  1.096  1.095  1.094  1.093 


Multipliers  for  Compound  Weirs.  Fig,  71 


Head 

.... 

h, 

feet 

Type  F 

Type  G 

Type  H 

Type  I 

Type  J 

Type  K 

Type  L 

0.5 

0.964 

0.932 

0.934 

0.968 

0.971 

0.971 

0.971 

1.0 

1.026 

0.982 

1.000 

1.008 

1.040 

1.040 

0.983 

1.5 

1.064 

1.015 

1.040 

1.032 

1.083 

1.092 

1.022 

2.0 

1.066 

1.031 

1.061 

1.041 

1.105 

1.126 

1.040 

2.5 

1.025 

1.038 

1.073 

1.043 

1.118 

1.146 

1.057 

3.0 

0.992 

1.044 

1.082 

1.044 

1.128 

1.163 

1.072 

3.5 

0.966 

1.049 

1.090 

1.045 

1.136 

1.177 

1.085 

4.0 

0.944 

1.053 

1.097 

1.046 

1.144 

1.190 

1,097 

151 


Water  Power 


WATER  POWER 


(From  Kent’s  Mechanical  Engineers’  Pocket  Book.) 

Power  of  a Fall  of  Water — Efficiency.  The  gross  power  of  a fall 
of  water  is  the  product  of  the  weight  of  water  discharged  in  a unit  of  time 
into  the  total  head,  i.  e.,  the  difference  of  vertical  elevation  of  the  upper 
surface  of  the  water  at  the  points  where  the  fall  in  question  begins  and  ends. 
The  term  “head”  used  in  connection  with  water-wheels  is  the  difference  in 
height  from  the  surface  of  the  water  in  the  wheel-pit  to  the  surface  in  the 
penstock  when  the  wheel  is  running. 

If  Q = cubic  feet  of  water  discharged  per  second,  D=  weight  of  a cubic 
foot  of  water  = 62.36  pounds  at  60°  F.,  H = total  head  in  feet;  then 

DQH  = gross  power  in  foot-pounds  per  second, 

and 


DQH  *t*  550  =0.1134  QH  = gross  horse-power. 
If  Q'  is  taken  in  cubic  feet  per  minute, 

H P'  -T— M® 


A water-wheel  or  motor  of  any  kind  cannot  utilize  the  whole  of  the 
head  H , since  there  are  losses  of  head  at  both  the  entrance  to  and  the 
exit  from  the  wheel.  There  are  also  losses  of  energy  due  to  friction  of  the 
water  in  its  passage  through  the  wheel.  The  ratio  of  the  power  developed 
by  the  wheel  to  the  gross  power  of  the  fall  is  the  efficiency  of  the  wheel. 


For  75%  efficiency,  net  horse-power  =0.00142  Q'H  = 


Q'H 

706' 


A head  of  water  can  be  made  use  of  in  one  or  other  of  the  following 
ways,  viz: 

First.  By  its  weight,  as  in  the  water-balance  and  in  the  overshot  wheel. 

Second.  By  its  pressure,  as  in  turbines  and  in  the  hydraulic  engine, 
hydraulic  press,  crane,  etc. 

Third.  By  its  impulse,  as  in  the  undershot  wheel,  and  in  the  Pel  ton 
wheel. 


Fourth.  By  a combination  of  the  above. 

Horse- power  of  a Running  Stream.  The  gross  horse-power  is 
H.P.  =QHX 62.36  4-550  = 0.1134  QH}  in  which  Q is  the  discharge  in  cubic 
feet  per  second  actually  impinging  on  the  float  or  bucket,  and 

v 2 v 2 

//  = theoretical  head  due  to  fehe  velocity  of  the  stream  = ^ 

in  which  v is  the  velocity  in  feet  per  second.  If  Q'be  taken  in  cubic  feet 
per  minute  H.P.  =0.00189 Q'H. 


152 


Bernoulli’s  Theorem 


Thus,  if  the  floats  of  an  undershot  wheel  driven  by  a current  alone 
be  5 feet  X 1 foot, and  the  velocity  of  stream  = 210  feet  per  minute, or  3 
feet  per  second,  of  which  the  theoretical  head  is  0.19  feet,  Q = 5 square 
feet  X 210  = 1050  cubic  feet  per  minute;  H.P.  = 1050X0.19  X 0.00189  = 
0.377  H.P. 

The  wheels  would  realize  only  about  0.4  of  this  power,  on  account  of 
friction  and  slip,  or  0.151  H.P.,  or  about  0.03  H.P.  per  square  foot  of 
float,  which  is  equivalent  to  33  square  feet  of  float  per  H.  P. 

Current  Motors.  A current  motor  could  only  utilize  the  whole 
power  of  a running  stream  if  it  could  take  all  the  velocity  out  of  the  water, 
so  that  it  would  leave  the  floats  or  buckets  with  no  velocity  at  all;  or  in 
other  words,  it  would  require  the  backing  up  of  the  whole  volume  of  the 
stream  until  the  actual  head  was  equivalent  to  the  theoretical  head  due  to 
the  velocity  of  the  stream.  As  but  a small  fraction  of  the  velocity  of  the 
stream  can  be  taken  up  by  a current  motor,  its  efficiency  is  very  small. 
Current  motors  may  be  used  to  obtain  small  amounts  of  power  from  large 
streams,  but  for  large  powers  they  are  not  practicable. 


Bernoulli’s  Theorem.  Energy  of  Water  Flowing  in  a Tube. 

v 2 / 

The  head  due  to  the  velocity  is  ^ ~ the  head  due  to  the  pressure  is  — ; the 

head  due  to  actual  height  above  the  datum  plane  is  h feet.  The  total  head 
I v2  f 

is  the  sum  of  these  = 2~^+/i+~,  in  feet,  in  which  v = velocity  in  feet  per 
second,  / = pressure  in  pounds  per  square  foot,  w — weight  of  1 cubic  foot 

/ 

of  water  = 62. 36  pounds.  If  p = pressure  in  pounds  per  square  inch— = 

2.309p.  If  a constant  quantity  of  water  is  flowing  through  a tube  in  a given 
time,  the  velocity  varying  at  different  points  on  account  of  changes  in  the 
diameter,  the  energy  remains  constant  (loss  by  friction  excepted)  and  the 
sum  of  the  three  heads  is  constant,  the  pressure  head  increasing  as  the 
velocity  decreases,  and  vice  versa.  This  principle  is  known  as  “Bernoulli’s 
Theorem.” 

In  hydraulic  transmission  the  velocity  and  the  height  above  datum 
are  usually  small  compared  with  the  pressure-head.  The  work  or  energy 
of  a given  quantity  of  water  under  pressure  = its  volume  in  cubic  feet 
Xits  pressure  in  pounds  per  square  foot;  or  if  Q = quantity  in  cubic  feet 
per  second,  and  p = pressure  in  pounds  per  square  inch,  IF  = 144  pQ  and 

the  H.P.  =0.2618  pQ. 


153 


Water  Power  Tables 


Table  for  Calculating  the  Horse-power  of  Water  Heads 

(Pelton  Water  Wheel  Company.) 

The  following  table  gives  the  horse-power  of  1 cubic  foot  of  water  per 
minute  under  heads  from  1 up  to  2100  feet. 


Heads 
in  feet 

Horse- 

power 

Heads 
in  feet 

Horse- 

power 

Heads 
in  feet 

Horse- 

power 

Heads 
in  feet 

Horse- 

power 

1 

.0016098 

220 

.354156 

430 

.692214 

1050 

1.690290 

20 

.032196 

230 

.370254 

440 

.708312 

1100 

1.770780 

30 

.048294 

240 

.386352 

450 

.724410 

1150 

1.851270 

40 

.064392 

250 

.402450 

460 

.740508 

1200 

1.931760 

50 

.080490 

260 

.418548 

470 

.756606 

1250 

2.012250 

60 

.096588 

270 

.434646 

480 

.772704 

1300 

2.092740 

70 

.112686 

280 

.450744 

490 

.788802 

1350 

2.173230 

80 

.128784 

290 

.466842 

500 

.804900 

1400 

2.253720 

90 

.144882 

300 

.482940 

520 

.837096 

1450 

2.334210 

100 

. 160980 

310 

.499038 

540 

.869292 

1500 

2.414700 

110 

.177078 

320 

.515136 

560 

.901488 

1550 

2.495190 

120 

.193176 

330 

.531234 

580 

.933684 

1600 

2.575680 

130 

.209274 

340 

.547332 

600 

.965880 

1650 

2.656170 

140 

.225372 

350 

.563430 

650 

1.046370 

1700 

2.736660 

150 

.241470 

360 

.579528 

700 

1.126860 

1750 

2.817150 

160 

.257568 

370 

.595626 

750 

1.207350 

1800 

2.897640 

170 

.273666 

380 

.611724 

800 

1 .287840 

1850 

2.978130 

180 

.289764 

390 

.627822 

850 

1.368330 

1900 

3.058620 

190 

.305862 

400 

.643920 

900 

1.448820 

1950 

3.139110 

200 

.321960 

410 

.660018 

950 

1.529310 

2000 

3.219600 

210 

.338058 

420 

.676116 

1000 

1 .609800 

2100 

3.380580 

When  the  Exact  Head  is  Found  in  Above  Table 

Example:  Have  100-foot  head  and  50  cubic  feet  of  water  per  minute. 
How  many  horse-power? 

By  reference  to  the  above  table  the  horse-power  of  each  cubic  foot 
under  100-foot  head  will  be  found  to  be  .16098.  This  amount  multiplied 
by  the  number  of  cubic  feet  per  minute,  50,  will  give  8.05  horse-power. 

' 

When  Exact  Head  is  Not  Found  in  Table 

Take  the  horse-power  of  1 cubic  foot  per  minute  under  1-foot  head, 
and  multiply  by  the  number  of  cubic  feet  available,  and  then  by  the 
number  of  feet  head.  The  product  will  be  the  required  horse-power. 

Note:  The  above  table  is  based  upon  an  efficiency  of  85  per  cent. 


154 


Gallons  and  Cubic  Feet 

Gallons  and  Cubic  Feet 

United  States  Gallons  in  a Given  Number  of  Cubic  Feet 

(1  cubic  foot  = 7.480519  U.  S.  gallons:  1 gallon  = 231  cubic  inches  = 

0.13368056  cubic  foot.) 

Cubic  feet 

Gallons 

Cubic  feet 

Gallons 

Cubic  feet 

Gallons 

0.1 

0.75 

50 

374.0 

8 000 

59  844.2 

0.2 

1.50 

60 

448.8 

9 000 

67  324.7 

0.3 

2.24 

70 

523.6 

10  000 

74  805.2 

0.4 

2.99 

80 

598.4 

20  000 

149  610.4 

0.5 

3.74 

90 

673.2 

30  000 

224415.6 

0.6 

4.49 

100 

748.1 

40  000 

299  220.8 

0.7 

5.24 

200 

1 496.1 

50  000 

374  025.9 

0.8 

5.98 

300 

2 244.2 

60  000 

448  831 . 1 

0.9 

6.73 

400 

2 992.2 

70  000 

523  636.3 

1 

7.48 

500 

3 740.3 

80  000 

598  441.5 

2 

14.96 

600 

4 488.3 

90  000 

673  246.7 

3 

22.44 

700 

5 236.4 

100  000 

748  051.9 

4 

29.92 

800 

5 984.4 

200  000 

1 496  103.8 

5 

37.40 

900 

6 732.5 

300  000 

2 244  155.7 

6 

44.88 

1000 

7 480.5 

400  000 

2 992  207.6 

7 

52.36 

2000 

14  961 . 0 

500  000 

3 740  259.5 

8 

59.84 

3000 

22  441.6 

600  000 

4 488  311.4 

9 

67.32 

4000 

29  922 . 1 

700  000 

5 236  363.3 

10 

74.81 

5000 

37  402.6 

800  000 

5 984  415.2 

20 

149.6 

6000 

44  883 . 1 

900  000 

6 732  467 . 1 

30 

224.4 

7000 

52  363.6 

1 000  000 

7 480  519.0 

40 

299.2 

Cubic  Feet  in  a Given  Number  of  Gallons 

Gallons 

Cubic  feet 

Gallons 

Cubic  feet 

Gallons 

Cubic  feet 

1 

.134 

1 000 

133.681 

1 000  000 

133  680.6 

2 

.267 

2 000 

267.361 

2 000  000 

267  361.1 

3 

.401 

3 000 

401.042 

3 000  000 

401  041.7 

4 

.535 

4 000 

534.722 

4 000  000 

534  722.2 

5 

.668 

5 000 

668.403 

5 000  000 

668  402.8 

6 

.802 

6 000 

802.083 

6 000  000 

802  083.4 

7 

.936 

7 000 

935.764 

7 000  000 

935  763.9 

8 

1.069 

8 000 

1 069.444 

8 000  000 

1 069  444.5 

9 

1.203 

9 000 

1 203 . 125 

9 000  000 

1 203  125.0 

10 

3.337 

10  000 

1 336.806 

10  000  000 

1 336  805.6 

Cubic  Feet  per  Second , Gallons  in  24  Hours,  etc. 

Cubic  feet  per  second 

760 

1 1.5472  2.2280 

Cubic  feet  per  minute 

1 60  92.834  133.681 

U.  S.  gallons  per  minute  . . 7.480519  448.83  694.444  1 000 

U.  S.  gallons  per  24  hours  10  771 . 95  646  317  1 000  000  1 440  000 

Pounds  of  water  (at  62°F.) 

per  minute . . , 

62.355  3741.3  5788.65  8335.65 

155 


Contents  of  Pipes  and  Cylinders 


Contents  in  Cubic  Feet  and  United  States  Gallons  of  Pipes  and 
Cylinders  of  Various  Inside  Diameters  and  One  Foot  in  Length 

(1  gallon  = 231  cubic  inches.  1 cubic  foot  = 7.4805  gallons.) 


For  1 ft.  in  length 

For  1 ft. 

in  length 

For  1 ft. 

in  length 

S w 

<3  m 

"a;  a> 

|.S| 

Cubic 
feet,  also 

CD  O) 

Cubic 
feet,  also 

t>  ® 
S.S’S 

os  a 

Cubic 
feet,  also 

Q 

area  in 

U.  S. 

Q ~ 

area  in 

U.  S. 

Q 

area  in 

U.  S. 

square 

gallons 

square 

gallons 

square 

gallons 

feet 

feet 

feet 

A 

.0003 

.0025 

6^4 

.2485 

1.859 

19 

1.969 

14.73 

~h 

.0005 

.0040 

7 

.2673 

1.999 

19  X 

2.074 

15.51 

% 

.0008 

.0057 

7^4 

.2867 

2.145 

20 

2.182 

16.32 

TE 

.0010 

.0078 

734 

.3068 

2.295 

20  X 

2.292 

17.15 

V2 

.0014 

.0102 

7Yi 

.3276 

2.450 

21 

2.405 

17.99 

TE 

.0017 

.0129 

8 \ 

.3491 

2.611 

21X 

2.521 

18.86 

5A 

.0021 

.0159 

8H 

.3712 

2.777 

22 

2.640 

19.75 

H 

.0026 

.0193 

834 

.3941 

2.948 

22  X 

2.761 

20.66 

% 

.0031 

.0230 

8% 

.4176 

3.125 

23 

2.885 

21.58 

H 

.0036 

.0269 

9 

.4418 

3.305 

23  X 

3.012 

22.53 

X 

.0042 

.0312 

9H 

.4667 

3.491 

24 

3.142 

23.50 

ff 

.0048 

.0359 

934 

.4922 

3.682 

25 

3.409 

25.50 

1 

.0055 

.0408 

9% 

.5185 

3.879 

26 

3.687 

27.58 

i X 

.0085 

.0638 

10 

.5454 

4.080 

27 

3.976 

29.74 

134 

.0123 

.0918 

1034 

.5730 

4.286 

28 

4.276 

31.99 

IX 

.0167 

.1249 

1034 

.6013 

4.498 

29 

4.587 

34.31 

2 

.0218 

.1632 

1034 

.6303 

4.715 

30 

4.909 

36.72 

234 

.0276 

.2066 

11 

.6600 

4.937 

31 

5.241 

39.21 

234 

.0341 

.2550 

1134 

.6903 

5.164 

32 

5.585 

41.78 

2% 

.0412 

.3085 

1134 

.7213 

5.396 

33 

5.940 

44.43 

3 

.0491 

.3672 

11X 

.7530 

5.633 

34 

6.305 

47.16 

334 

.0576 

.4309 

12 

.7854 

5.875 

35 

6.681 

49.98 

3M 

.0668 

.4998 

12  34 

.8522 

6.375 

36 

7.069 

52.88 

3^4 

.0767 

.5738 

13 

.9218 

6.895 

37 

7.467 

55.86 

4 

.0873 

.6528 

1334 

1.9940 

7.436 

38 

7.876 

58.92 

434 

.0985 

.7369 

14 

1.069 

7.997 

39 

8.296 

62.06 

434 

.1104 

.8263 

14  34 

1.147 

8.578 

40 

8 . 727 

65.28 

4 X 

.1231 

.9206 

15 

1.227 

9.180 

41 

9.168 

68.58 

5 

.1364 

1.020 

1534 

1.310 

9.801 

42 

9.621 

71.97 

534 

.1503 

1.125 

16 

1.396 

10.44 

43 

10.085 

75.44 

534 

.1650 

1.234 

16X 

1.485 

11.11 

44 

10 . 559 

78.99 

534 

.1803 

1.349 

17 

1.576 

11.79 

45 

11.045 

82.62 

6 

.1963 

1.469 

1734 

1.670 

12.49 

46 

11.541 

86.33 

634 

.2131 

1.594 

18 

1.767 

13.22 

47 

12.048 

90.13 

634 

.2304 

.1724 

18X 

1.867 

13.96 

48 

12.566 

94.00 

To  find  the  capacity  of  pipes  greater  than  the  largest  given  in  the  table,  look  in  the  table 
for  a pipe  of  one-half  the  given  size,  and  multiply  its  capacity  by  4;  or  one  of  one-third  its 
size,  and  multiply  its  capacity  by  9,  etc. 

To  find  the  weigth  of  water  in  any  of  the  given  sizes,  multiply  the  capacity  in  cubic  feet 
by  6234  or  the  capacity  in  gallons  by  8%,  or,  if  a more  accurate  result  is  required,  by  the 
weight  of  a cubic  foot  of  water  at  the  actual  temperature  in  the  pipe. 

Given  the  dimensions  of  a cylinder  in  inches,  to  find  its  capacity  in  U.  S.  gallons:  Square 
the  diameter,  multiply  by  the  length  and  by  0.0034.  If  d = diameter,  l = length,  gallons  = 

^ ^ ^231°^  ^ ^ = 0 • 0034  d^l.  If  D and  L are  in  feet,  gallons  =5 .875  D-L. 

— — — 


156 


Cylindrical  Vessels 


Cylindrical  Vessels,  Tanks  and  Cisterns 
Diameter  in  Ft.  and  Ins.,  Area  in  Sq.  Ft.  and  Capacity  in  U.  S.  Gals,  for  1 Ft.  in  Depth 
(1  gallon  =231  cubic  inches  = 1 cubic  foot/7.4805  =0.13368  cubic  foot.) 


Diam- 
eter, 
ft.  in. 

Area, 

square 

feet 

Gallons, 
1 foot 
depth 

Diam- 
eter, 
ft.  in. 

Area, 

square 

feet 

Gallons, 
1 foot 
depth 

Diam- 
eter, 
ft.  in. 

Area, 

square 

feet 

Gallons, 
1 foot 
depth 

1 

0 

.785 

5.87 

5 

8 

25.22 

188.66 

19 

0 

283 . 53 

2120.9 

1 

1 

.922 

6.89 

5 

9 

25.97 

194.25 

19 

3 

291.04 

2177.1 

1 

2 

1.069 

8.00 

5 

10 

26.73 

199.92 

19 

6 

298.65 

2234.0 

1 

3 

1.227 

9.18 

5 

11 

27.49 

205.67 

19 

9 

306.35 

2291.7 

1 

4 

1.396 

10.44 

6 

0 

28.27 

211.51 

20 

0 

314.16 

2350 . 1 

1 

5 

1.576 

11.79 

6 

3 

30.68 

229.50 

20 

3 

322.06 

2409.2 

1 

6 

1.767 

13.22 

6 

6 

33.18 

248.23 

20 

6 

330.06 

2469 . 1 

1 

7 

1.969 

14.73 

6 

9 

35.78 

267.69 

20 

9 

338.16 

2529.6 

1 

8 

2.182 

16.32 

7 

0 

38.48 

287.88 

21 

0 

346.36 

2591.0 

1 

9 

2.405 

17.99 

7 

3 

41.28 

308.81 

21 

3 

354.66 

2653.0 

1 

10 

2.640 

19.75 

7 

6 

44.18 

330.48 

21 

6 

363.05 

2715.8 

1 

11 

2.885 

21.58 

7 

9 

47.17 

352.88 

21 

9 

371.54 

2779.3 

2 

0 

3.142 

23.50 

8 

0 

50.27 

376.01 

22 

0 

380.13 

2843.6 

2 

1 

3.409 

25.50 

8 

3 

53.46 

399.88 

22 

3 

388.82 

2908.6 

2 

2 

3.687 

27.58 

8 

6 

56.75 

424.48 

22 

6 

397.61 

2974.3 

2 

3 

3.976 

29.74 

8 

9 

60.13 

449.82 

22 

9 

406.49 

3040.8 

2 

4 

4.276 

31.99 

9 

0 

63.62 

475.89 

23 

0 

415.48 

3108.0 

2 

5 

4.587 

34.31 

9 

3 

67.20 

502.70 

23 

3 

424.56 

3175.9 

2 

6 

4.909 

36.72 

9 

6 

70.88 

530.24 

23 

6 

433.74 

3244.6 

2 

7 

5.241 

39.21 

9 

9 

74.66 

558.51 

23 

9 

443.01 

3314.0 

2 

8 

5.585 

41.78 

10 

0 

78.54 

587.52 

24 

0 

452.39 

3384.1 

2 

9 

5.940 

44.43 

10 

3 

82.52 

617.26 

24 

3 

461.86 

3455.0 

2 

10 

6.305 

47.16 

10 

6 

86.59 

647.74 

24 

6 

471.44 

3526.6 

2 

11 

6.681 

49.98 

10 

9 

90.76 

678.95 

24 

9 

481.11 

3598.9 

3 

0 

7.069 

52.88 

11 

0 

95.03 

710.90 

25 

0 

490.87 

3672.0 

3 

1 

7.467 

55.86 

11 

3 

99.40 

743.58 

25 

3 

500.74 

3745.8 

3 

2 

7.876 

58.92 

11 

6 

103.87 

776.99 

25 

6 

510.71 

3820.3 

3 

3 

8.296 

62.06 

11 

9 

108.43 

811.14 

25 

9 

520.77 

3895.6 

3 

4 

8.727 

65.28 

12 

0 

113.10 

846.03 

26 

0 

530.93 

3971.6 

3 

5 

9.168 

68.58 

12 

3 

117.86 

881 .65 . 

26 

3 

541.19 

4048.4 

3 

6 

9.621 

71.97 

12 

6 

122.72 

918.00 

26 

6 

551.55 

4125.9 

3 

7 

10.085 

75.44 

12 

9 

127.68 

955.09 

26 

9 

562.00 

4204 . 1 

3 

8 

10.559 

78.99 

13 

0 

132.73 

992.91 

27 

0 

572.56 

4283.0 

3 

9 

11.045 

82.62 

13 

3 

137.89 

1031.5 

27 

3 

583.21 

4362.7 

3 

10 

11.541 

86.33 

13 

6 

143.14 

1070.8 

27 

6 

593.96 

4443.1 

3 

11 

12.048 

90.13 

13 

9 

148.49 

1110.8 

27 

9 

604.81 

4524.3 

4 

0 

12.566 

94.00 

14 

0 

153.94 

1151.5 

28 

0 

615.75 

4606.2 

4 

1 

13.095 

97.96 

14 

3 

159.48 

1193.0 

28 

3 

626.80 

4688.8 

4 

2 

13.635 

102.00 

14 

6 

165.13 

1235.3 

28 

6 

637.94 

4772 . 1 

4 

3 

14.186 

106.12 

14 

9 

170.87 

1278.2 

28 

9 

649 . 18 

4856.2 

4 

4 

14.748 

110.32 

15 

0 

176.71 

1321.9 

29 

0 

660.52 

4941.0 

4 

5 

15.321 

114.61 

15 

3 

182.65 

1366.4 

29 

3 

671.96 

5026.6 

4 

6 

15.90 

118.97 

15 

6 

188.69 

1411.5 

29 

6 

683.49 

5112.9 

4 

7 

16.50 

123.42 

15 

9 

194.83 

1457.4 

29 

9 

695.13 

5199.9 

4 

8 

17.10 

127.95 

16 

0 

201.06 

1504 . 1 

30 

0 

706.86 

5287.7 

4 

9 

17.72 

132.56 

16 

3 

207.39 

1551.4 

30 

3 

718.69 

5376.2 

4 

10 

18.35 

137.25 

16 

6 

213.82 

1599.5 

30 

6 

730.62 

5465.4 

4 

11 

18.99 

142.02 

16 

9 

220.35 

1648.4 

30 

9 

742.64 

5555.4 

5 

0 

19.63 

146.88 

17 

0 

226.98 

1697.9 

31 

0 

754.77 

5646 . 1 

5 

1 

20.29 

151.82 

17 

3 

233.71 

1748.2 

31 

3 

766.99 

5737.5 

5 

2 

20.97 

156.83 

17 

6 

240.53 

1799.3 

31 

6 

779.31 

5829.7 

5 

3 

21.65 

161.93 

17 

9 

247.45 

1851.1 

31 

9 

791.73 

5922.6 

5 

4 

22.34 

167.12 

18 

0 

254.47 

1903.6 

32 

0 

804.25 

6016.2 

5 

5 

23.04 

172.38 

18 

3 

261.59 

1956.8 

32 

3 

816.86 

6110.6 

5 

6 

23.76 

177.72 

18 

6 

268.80 

2010.8 

32 

6 

829.58 

6205.7 

5 

7 

24.48 

183.15 

18 

9 

276.12 

2065 . 5 

32 

9 

842 . 39 

6301.5 

157 


Water  Contents , in  Barrels 


Number  of  Barrels  (31  ^ Gallons)  in  Cylindrical  Cisterns  and  Tanks 

(1  barrel  =31 H gallons  =31.5 X23 1/1728  =4.21094  cu.  ft.;  reciprocal  =0.237477.) 


£ CD 

&«£ 

o 

Q.S 

1 

5 

6 

7 

8 
9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 


Diameter  in  feet 


5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

4.663 

6 

.714 

9.139 

11.937 

15.108 

18.652 

22.569 

26.859 

31.522 

23.3 

33 

.6 

45.7 

59.7 

75.5 

93.3 

112.8 

134.3 

157.6 

28.0 

40 

.3 

54.8 

71.6 

90.6 

111.9 

135.4 

161.2 

189.1 

32.6 

47 

.0 

64.0 

83.6 

105.8 

130.6 

158.0 

188.0 

220.7 

37.3 

53 

.7 

73.1 

95.5 

120.9 

149.2 

180.6 

214.9 

252.2 

42.0 

60 

.4 

82.3 

107.4 

136.0 

167.9 

203.1 

241.7 

283.7 

46.6 

67 

.1 

91.4 

119.4 

151.1 

186.5 

225.7 

268.6 

315.2 

51.3 

73 

.9 

100.5 

131.3 

166.2 

205.2 

248.3 

295.4 

346.7 

56.0 

80 

.6 

109.7 

143.2 

181.3 

223.8 

270.8 

322.3 

378.3 

60.6 

87 

.3 

118.8 

155.2 

196.4 

242.5 

293.4 

349.2 

409.8 

65.3 

94 

.0 

127.9 

167.1 

211.5 

261.1 

316.0 

376.0 

441.3 

69.9 

100 

.7 

137.1 

179.1 

226.6 

279.8 

338.5 

402.9 

472.8 

74.6 

107 

.4 

146.2 

191.0 

241.7 

298.4 

361.1 

429.7 

504.4 

79.3 

114 

.1 

155.4 

202.9 

256.8 

317.1 

383.7 

456.6 

535.9 

83.9 

120 

.9 

164.5 

214.9 

271.9 

335.7 

406.2 

483.5 

567.4 

88.6 

127 

.6 

173.6 

226.8 

287.1 

354.4 

428.8 

510.3 

598.9 

93.3 

134 

.3 

182.8 

238.7 

302.2 

373.0 

451.4 

537.2 

630.4 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

36.557 

41 

.966 

47.748 

53.903 

60.431 

67.332 

74.606 

82.253 

90.273 

182.8 

209.8 

238.7 

269.5 

302.2 

336.7 

373.0 

411.3 

451.4 

219.3 

251.8 

286.5 

323.4 

362.6 

404.0 

447.6 

493.5 

541.6 

255.9 

293.8 

334.2 

377.3 

423.0 

471.3 

522.2 

575.8 

631.9 

292.5 

335.7 

382.0 

431.2 

483.4 

538.7 

596.8 

658.0 

722.2 

329.0 

377.7 

429.7 

485.1 

543.9 

606.0 

671.5 

740.3 

812.5 

365.6 

419.7 

477.5 

539.0 

604.3 

673.3 

746.1 

822.5 

902.7 

402.1 

461.6 

525.2 

.592.9 

664.7 

740.7 

820.7 

904.8 

993.0 

438.7 

503.6 

573.0 

646.8 

725.2 

808.0 

895.3 

987.0 

1083.3 

475.2 

545.6 

620.7 

700.7 

785.6 

875.3 

969.9 

1069.3 

1173.5 

511.8 

587.5 

668.5 

754.6 

846.0 

942.6 

1044.5 

1151.5 

1263.8 

548.4 

629.5 

716.2 

808.5 

906.5 

1010.0 

1119.1 

1233.8 

1354.1 

584.9 

671.5 

764.0 

862.4 

966.9 

1077.3 

1193.7 

1316.0 

1444.4 

621.5 

713.4 

811.7 

916.4 

1027.3 

1144.6 

1268.3 

1398.3 

1534.5 

658.0 

755.4 

859.5 

970.3 

1087.8 

1212.0 

1342.9 

1480.6 

1624.9 

694.6 

797.4 

907.2 

1024.2 

1148.2 

1279.3 

1417.5 

1562.8 

1715.2 

731.1 

839.3 

955.0 

1078 . 1 

1208.6 

1346.6 

1492 . 1 

1645 . 1 

1805 . 5 

23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

28 

29 

30 

98.666 

107.432 

116.571 

126.083 

135.968 

146.226 

156.858 

167.863 

493.3 

537.2 

582.9 

630.4 

679.8 

731.1 

784.3 

839.3 

592.0 

644.6 

699.4 

756.5 

815.8 

877.4 

941.1 

1007.2 

690 . 1 

7 

752.0 

816.0 

882.6 

951.8 

1023.6 

1098.0 

1175.0 

789.J 

1 

859.5 

932.6 

1008.7 

1087.7 

1169.8 

1254.9 

1342.9 

888.0 

966.9 

1049 . 1 

1134.7 

1223.7 

1316.0 

1411.7 

1510.8 

986.^ 

7 

1074.3 

1165.7 

1260.8 

1359.7 

1462.2 

1568.6 

1678.6 

1085.: 

3 

1181.8 

1282.3 

1386.9 

1495.6 

1608.5 

1725.4 

1846.5 

1184.0 

1289.2 

1398.8 

1513.0 

1631.6 

1754.7 

1882.3 

2014.4 

1282.: 

7 

1396.6 

1515.4 

1639.1 

1767.6 

1900.9 

2039.2 

2182.2 

1381.: 

3 

1504.0 

1632.0 

1765.2 

1903.6 

2047.2 

2196.0 

2350 . 1 

1480.0 

1611.5 

1748.6 

1891.2 

2039.5 

2193.4 

2352.9 

2517.9 

1578.7 

1718.9 

1865.1 

2017.3 

2175.5 

2339.6 

2509.7 

2685.8 

1677.3 

1826.3 

1981.7 

2143.4 

2311.5 

2485.8 

2666.6 

2853.7 

1776. ( 

) 

1933.8 

2098.3 

2269.5  . 

2447.4 

2632.0 

2823.4 

3021.5 

1874.7 

2041.2 

2214.8 

2395.6 

2583.4 

2778.3 

2980.3 

3189.4 

1973.3 

2148.6 

2321 .4 

2521.7 

2719.4 

2924 . 5 

3137.2 

3357.3 

158 


Water  Supply 


SOURCE 

A Waterworks  System  must  secure  its  supply  when  and  where  it  can 
be  gotten,  and  must  deliver  it  when  and  where  required  by  its  customers, 
or  “ takers.”  Waterworks  structures  are  required  to  collect  the  water;  to 
hold  it  from  times  when  it  is  available  until  it  is  required ; to  pump  it  to  a 
higher  elevation;  to  convey  it  from  the  point  where  it  is  available  to  the 
points  where  it  is  required,  and  to  allow  the  water  to  be  measured  and 
controlled  at  all  points.  Water  is  required  by  the  takers  at  very  unequal 
rates,  following  the  requirements  and  emergencies  that  arise  in  their  busi- 
ness, and  the  fundamental  requirement  controlling  the  design  of  works  is  to 
secure  the  ability  to  supply  water  wherever  and  whenever  required  and  in 
whatever  reasonable  amounts  may  be  needed. 

COLLECTION  OF  WATER 
Intakes 

Intakes  are  structures  built  out  into  a body  of  water  for  the  purpose  of 
drawing  water  for  use.  The  position  of  intakes  is  often  affected  by  con- 
siderations of  local  pollution  when  sewage  is  allowed  to  flow  into  the  same 
body  of  water  from  which  the  supply  is  taken.  This  is  commonly  the  case 
in  cities  located  upon  rivers  and  great  lakes.  The  depth  of  intake  is  fre- 
quently a matter  of  importance  where  water  of  different  qualities  is  to  be 
obtained  at  different  levels.  There  are  three  types  of  intakes:  (1)  Un- 

protected intakes,  (2)  Submerged  intakes,  (3)  Exposed  or  tower  cribs. 

Unprotected  intakes  are  used  for  small  supplies.  The  pipe  is  allowed  to 
terminate  at  the  desired  point,  sometimes  being  protected  by  a coarse 
screen.  A fine  screen  is  not  permissible  because  it  will  be  clogged  by  matters 
carried  by  the  water. 

A submerged  Crib  is  a structure  built  on  the  bottom  of  the  lake  or 
river  from  the  interior  of  which  the  water  is  taken.  It  serves  the  purpose 
of  roughly  screening  the  water  and  also  of  protecting  the  end  of  the  intake 
pipe  from  damage.  Exposed  or  TOWER  CRIBS  are  structures  built  on 
the  bottom  of  the  river  or  lake  and  extending  above  high  water.  They  are 
frequently  provided  at  different  levels  with  ports  controlled  by  gates,  and 
screens  may  be  located  in  their  interiors.  Tower  cribs  have  many  advan- 
tages for  large  supplies.  The  ports  may  be  closed  and  the  water  pumped 
out  of  the  intake  pipe  and  everything  inspected  for  tightness  and  condition. 
Screens  in  them  may  be  reached  for  cleaning  and  repairs.  Tower  cribs 
require  excellent  foundations  and  they  must  be  built  strong  enough  to 
withstand  ice  pressures.  In  cold  climates  they  are  only  used  for  large 
supplies.  In  warmer  climates  where  ice  pressure  is  not  effective  they  are 
also  used  for  small  supplies. 

Intake  pipes  or  conduits  are  the  connecting  channels  between  the 
intakes  and  the  shore. 


159 


Water  Supply 

Steel  Pipes  for  intakes  are  laid  in  much  the  same  way  as  cast-iron  pipes. 
Flexible  joints  are  riveted  to  the  ends  of  the  steel  pipes  where  required 
(Fig.  72),  but  the  length  of  steel  pipe  between  such  joints  may  be  greater, 
as  steel  pipe  is  stronger  and  more  rigid  than  cast-iron  pipe.  Steel  pipe  is  fre- 
quently designed  to  fit  closely 
the  contour  of  the  bottom  and 
it  can  then  be  put  together  with 
ordinary  flange  joints  bolted  up 
by  a diver. 

Depth  of  Cover  for  Steel 
Pipe  must  not  be  excessive  or  the 
weight  of  the  earth  will  flatten  and 
deform  it.  A slight  flattening  is  not 
objectionable  as  it  does  not  cause 
the  pipe  to  leak  and  does  not  great- 
ly reduce  its  carrying  capacity. 

In  bad  trenches  and  where 
material  is  slippery  the  depth  of 
cover  should  be  kept  some- 
what less  than  in  solid  ground. 

With  firm  material  carefully  placed  around  the  pipe  and  well  rammed  on 
the  sides  the  depth  of  cover  for  short  distances  may  be  greater  than  in  loose 
caving  material.  If  it  is  necessary  to  cover  thin  pipe  to  a great 
depth  it  may  be  stiffened  by  angle  irons  riveted  to  it  at  frequent  intervals. 
A more  substantial  result  is  obtained  by  surrounding  the  pipe  with  con- 


crete. 


USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

Cubic  yards  of  earth  in  ditches  with  side  slopes  of  one  foot  in  ten. 


Bottom 

Width 

DEPTH 

IN  FEET 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

12 

14 

16 

18 

20 

2 

ft 

.36 

0.48 

0.60 

0.72 

0.86 

0.99 

1.15 

1.46 

1.80 

2.19 

2.59 

2.96 



.44 

0.57 

0.71 

0.85 

1.01 

1.16 

1.33 

1.68 

2.06 

2.48 

2.92 

3.33 

2 

ft 

.51 

0.66 

0.82 

0.98 

1.16 

1.33 

1.51 

1.90 

2.32 

2.80 

3.25 

3.70 

2U  ft  

.65 

0.76 

0.93 

1.11 

1.30 

1.49 

1.70 

2.12 

2.58 

3.10 

3.58 

4.07 

4 

ft 

.66 

0.84 

1.04 

1.24 

1.45 

1.66 

1.88 

2.34 

2.84 

3.40 

3.91 

4.44 

41%  ft 

.74 

0.94 

1.15 

1.37 

l .60 

1.83 

2.07 

2.57 

3.10 

3.70 

4.24 

4.81 

5 

ft 

.81 

F04 

1.26 

1.50 

1.75 

2.00 

2.25 

2.80 

3.36 

4.00 

4.57 

5.18 

Gates  on  Steel  Pipes.  There  are  two  ways  of  connecting  gates  in  steel 
pipes:  (1)  By  flange  connections,  the  flanges  being  riveted  to  the  steel  pipe 
and  bolted  to  flange  gates.  The  gates  must  have  cases  heavy  enough  and 
strong  enough  to  withstand  the  temperature  stresses  in  the  steel  pipe.  This 
is  essential.  If  flange  gates  of  ordinary  construction  are  used  the  cases  are 
sure  to  be  broken  by  the  expansion  and  contraction  of  the  pipe.  (2)  The 


160 


Gate  Valves 


gates  may  be  connected  with  the  steel  pipe  through  short  pieces  of  cast-iron 
pipe  and  lead  joints.  In  this  case  it  is  necessary  to  build  anchorages  on  the 
steel  pipe  on  either  side  of  the  gates.  The  two  anchorages  having  equal 
and  opposite  temperature  strains  to  hold  may  be  conveniently  connected 
by  old  steel  rails  laid  in  concrete. 

Connections  and  Accessories  of  Gates.  Gates  are  furnished  with 
either  flange  or  bell  ends  at  about  the  same  cost.  Bell  ends  are  generally 
used  in  pipe  lines  in  street  work;  flange  connections  are  used  in  gatehouses, 
pumping  stations,  and  about  filter  plants.  GATE  BOXES  are  metallic 
boxes  covering  the  wrench  connection  and  gate,  extending  to  the  surface 
of  the  ground,  with  an  expansion  joint  to  protect  them  from  damage  by 
frost  and  traffic  and  with  a removable  cover  to  allow  the  gate  to  be  opened,  ; 
from  the  surface  with  a suitable  wrench  after  removing  the  cover. 

Manholes  of  masonry  are  often  built  about  gates  of  special  importance, 
large  gates,  and  gates  operated  by  gears,  especially  when  located  under 
pavements  or  in  other  places  not  easily  accessible.  It  is  not  necessary  to 
build  such  manholes  about  small  gates  because  such  gates  can  be  readily 
and  cheaply  dug  up  in  the  infrequent  cases  of  access  to  them  being  ne- 
cessary. 

Gears  are  used  on  large  gates  and  gates  under  heavy  pressure.  In 
general  36-inch  gates,  10  lb  per  sq.  in.  working  pressure;  30-inch  gates,  50 
lb.  per  sq.  in  working  pressure;  and  20-inch  gates,  150  lb.  per  sq.  in.working 
pressure,  are  the  smallest  gates  to  be  geared,  spur  gears  are  used  on 
gates  set  vertically  and  opening  upward,  and  beveled  gears  on  gates  set 
horizontally  and  opening  sideways.  The  latter  are  to  be  used  wherever  the 
vertical  space  is  not  sufficient  to  put  in  the  spur-geared  gates. 

By-passes  are  provided  in  many  cases  on  large  gates  operating  under 
heavy  pressures.  These  are  built  into  and  form  part  of  the  main  gate.  A 
small  gate  on  the  by-pass  is  opened  to  equalize  the  pressures  in  the  pipe  on 
either  side  of  the  gate  before  the  main  gate  is  opened.  This  allows  the  main 
gate  to  be  opened  with  less  effort  than  would  otherwise  be  required. 

Hydraulically  Operated  Gates  in  which  the  screws  of  the  ordinary 
gate  are  omitted,  have  hydraulic  cylinders  provided  with  plungers  attached 
directly  to  the  moving  parts.  A small  control  valve  allows  high-pressure 
water  to  act  on  one  side  of  the  other  of  the  plunger,  opening  and  closing  the 
gate.  The  cost  is  about  twice  that  of  ordinary  gates. 

Hydraulically  operated  gates  with  “rising  screw”  stems  were  first 
installed  at  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  at  Cobbs  Hill  Reservoir.  Surmounting 
the  operating  cylinder  is  a yoke  upon  which  there  is  an  adjustable  clutch 
which  engages  the  screw  stem  and  allows  the  gate  to  be  operated  by  hand 
cranks,  whenever  there  is  insufficient  pressure  in  the  Conduit  for  hydraulic 
operation. 


161 


162 


Blow-off  Boxes 


Z 

o 

H 

< 

A 

Eh 


> 

> 

O 

£ 

o 

h} 

PQ 

O 

I— ( 

H 


163 


Pipe  Line  Accessories 


Gates  should  not  be  placed  where  they  cannot  be  inspected  and  tested 
and  kept  in  good  order. 

Electrically  Operated  Gates  are  furnished  with  electric  motors  geared 
to  the  screws  that  open  and  close  them.  Such  gates  are  used  occasionally 
in  pumping  stations  and  about  filters  where  electric  current  is  available. 

Sluice  Gates  are  of  simpler  construction,  arranged  for  being  built  into 
masonry  of  reservoirs  and  other  structures,  and  for  holding  water  against 
moderate  heads  only.  There  is  great  variety  in  the  design  of  sluice  gates. 
They  are  usually  cheaper  than  standard  gates,  and  for  the  services  to  which 
they  are  adapted  are  fully  satisfactory. 

Auxiliaries 

Air  Valves  are  small  valves  attached  to  pipes  for  the  purpose  of  auto- 
matically letting  out  air.  They  are  placed  on  summits  only.  Automatic 
air  valves  need  only  to  be  placed  on  summits  of  cast-iron  pipe  lines  where 
the  pressure  is  fight  and  variable,  that  is,  on  summits  nearly  up  to  the 
hydraulic  grade  fine.  On  all  summits  where  the  water  is  under  considerable 
pressure  it  is  sufficient  to  put  on  a petcock  or  a larger  valve  to  be  opened 
while  the  pipe  is  being  filled  and  which  can  be  closed  at  all  other  times.  As 
air  is  more  soluble  in  water  under  pressure  there  is  no  danger  of  the  separa- 
tion of  air  at  summits  under  considerable  pressure,  and  should  air  be  acci- 
dentally introduced  to  them  it  would  be  slowly  dissolved  and  removed  by 
the  passing  water.  As  a general  rule  air  valves  with  a diameter  of  one  inch 
for  each  foot  in  diameter  of  the  water  pipe  are  sufficient.  The  air  valves 
must  be  protected  from  frost  by  specially  constructed  boxes  to  insure  their 
being  in  readiness  to  act  in  winter. 

For  Steel  Pipe  air  valves  are  also  required  to  let  air  into  the  pipe 
rapidly  in  case  of  need,  as  the  pipe  is  not  so  constituted  that  it  will  support 
itself  against  outside  pressure  with  a vacuum  in  the  inside.  A break  in  a 
pipe  at  a low  point,  allowing  the  water  to  run  out  rapidly,  would  cause  a 
vacuum  in  higher  parts  of  the  pipe,  which  would  cause  the  pipe  to  collapse. 
Consideration  of  this  feature  has  led  to  placing  air  valves  for  automatically 
admitting  air  on  summits  of  steel  pipe. . Generally  the  air  valve  for  this 
purpose  should  have  a net  area  equal  to  a circle  one-eighth  of  the  diameter 
of  the  pipe. 

Air  valves  are  to  be  insisted  upon  in  all  steel-pipe  fines,  but  it  must  be 
remembered  that  they  are  called  upon  to  act  very  rarely  indeed,  and  for 
this  reason  a defective  valve  or  arrangement  may  be  used  without  the  dis- 
covery being  made  that  it  is  defective,  and  the  fact  that  a simpler  or  cheaper 
type  of  air  valve  has  been  used  in  certain  cases  where  there  have  been  no 
breaks  and  consequently  no  demand  that  has  taxed  its  capacity  is  not  to 
be  taken  as  an  indication  of  the  sufficiency  of  that  particular  design. 


164 


Conduits 


Blow-offs  are  small  pipes  attached  at  low  points  for  the  purpose  of 
drawing  off  and  wasting  the  water,  contained  in  the  pipe  during  times  of 
inspection  and  repair.  Blow-offs  are  usually  much  smaller  in  diameter  than 
the  main  pipe.  The  necessity  of  blow-offs  depends  upon  the  character  of 
the  water  and  the  service  of  the  pipe. 

In  general  an  air  valve  is  placed  on  each  summit  and  a blow-off  at  the 
bottom  of  each,  sag  in  a pipe  conduit  line.  They  are  generally  unnecessary 
or  very  infrequent  in  distribution  mains  as  there  are  so  many  connections, 
fire  hydrants  etc.,  which  may  be  utilized. 

Manholes  consisting  of  saddles  attached  to  the  pipe  and  removable 
covers  capable  Of  being  bolted  securely  to  the  frame  are  placed  on  steel 
pipes  at  distances  ranging  from  1000  to  2000  feet  apart,  to  allow  the  pipe 

to  be  entered  during  construction  and  afterward  for  inspection  and  repair. 
In  some  cases  manholes  have  been  placed  on  cast-iron  pipes,  altho  most 
lines  have  been  built  without  them. 

Twin  Lines  of  pipe  are  used  in  places  of  special  danger.  Either  line 
will  maintain  at  least  a partial  supply  in  case  of  break  in  the  other.  In 
case  twin  lines  are  long,  there  should  be  cross  connections  with  gates  so  that 
in  case  of  a break  in  either  line  a section  only  can  be  cut  out,  the  flow  at 
other  points  continuing  through  both  lines.  With  this  arrangement,  the 
amount  of  water  flowing  through  the  system  will  be  more  than  would  flow 
through  one  line  only. 

The  Cost  of 'Twin  Lines  with  cross  connections  is  from  30  to  50  percent 
greater  than  the  cost  of  a single  line  of  pipe  of  the  same  strength  and  capa- 
city. Where  no  other  purpose  than  safety  is  secured  by  dividing  the  flow, 
it  is  generally  better  to  spend  the  added  money,  or  a part  of  it,  in  strength- 
ening one  line  and  making  it  secure  beyond  question  rather  than  dividing 
it  between  two  smaller  lines.  River  crossings,  lines  over  coal  fields,  where 
there  are  sure  to  be  settlements,  and  other  points  of  special  hazard  are  best 
crossed  with  twin  lines,  three  lines  of  pipe  cost  from  60  to  80  percent 
more  than  one  line  of  equal  strength  and  capacity. 


Water  Supply  Conduits 

Leakage  should  be  avoided  as  far  as  possible.  All  visible  leaks  should 
be  stopped  and  the  pipe  examined  in  open  trench  under  test  pressure. 

Sand  Cutting  sometimes  occurs  where  leaks  occur  in  sharp  sandy 
soil.  A small  jet  from  an  imperfect  lead  joint  has  been  known  to  wash 
sand  in  such  a way  as  to  cut  entirely  through  the  band  of  the  pipe. 

Tubercles  in  Cast-iron  Pipe.  The  carrying  capacity  of  cast-iron  pipe 
is  Teduced  in  course  of  time  by  the  growth  of  tubercles  upon  the  interior  of 


165 


Conduits 


the  pipe.  In  a general  way  the  capacity  of  the  pipe,  other  things  being 
equal,  is  reduced  from  this  cause  by  as  much  as  one  percent  per  annum.  In 
small  pipes  the  deterioration  is  more  rapid.  Generally  the  deterioration  is 
less  rapid  with  clear  lake  waters  and  more  rapid  with  turbid  river  waters,  and 
especially  waters  carrying  organic  matter.  Filtered  river  waters  act  more 
nearly  like  lake  waters. 

Tubercles  can  be  Removed  by  sending  an  instrument  driven  by  the 
water  pressure  through  the  pipe.  This  instrument  is  called  a “go-devil.” 
Scraping  off  the  tubercles  in  this  way  increases  the  carrying  capacity  of  the 
pipe.  After  the  pipe  has  been  scraped  tubercles  grow  more  rapidly  than 
before,  so  that  the  remedy  is  a temporary  and  not  a permanent  one.  When 
the  pipe  is  once  scraped  it  is  usually  necessary  to  scrape  it  again,  and  the 
process  becomes  an  annual  one,  or  the  period  may  be  even  shorter. 

Organisms.  A well  coated  steel  plate  pipe  has  a smooth  surface  upon 
which  organisms  do  not  adhere  as  readily  as  to  the  rougher  surface  of  cast- 
iron  pipes. 

These  growths  increase  during  warm  weather  and  fall  off  to  some  extent 
as  the  water  gets  colder  in  the  winter. 

Spring  gaugings  of  long  pipe  lines  which  have  been  in  use  for  some  time 
show  somewhat  greater  discharge  than  when  the  same  conduits  are  gauged 
in  the  autumn. 

Effect  of  Cleaning  upon  the  Quality  of  the  Water.  The  corrosion 
and  tuberculation  of  iron  pipes  always  adds  iron  to  the  water,  and  this 
iron  gives  it  a color,  tends  to  deposit  and  is  objectionable.  Scraping  the 
pipes  frequently  increases  the  rate  of  tuberculation  and  increases  what- 
ever objection  there  may  be  to  the  iron  in  the  water  from  this  source. 

Pressure  for  Domestic  Service  Only.  At  the  street  line  20  lb.  per 
sq.  in.  will  raise  water  to  the  upper  floor  of  three-story  residences  and  allow 
a fair  service,  but  generally  40  lb.  per  sq.  in.  is  the  least  allowance  for  fair 
domestic  service.  For  business  blocks  and  higher  buildings  higher  press- 
ures are  needed;  60  or  70  lb.  per  sq.  in.  is  not  too  much  to  give  fair  service 
in  mills  and  business  blocks  that  are  not  especially  high.  High  steel  build- 
ings generally  pump  their  own  water  and  no  effort  is  made  to  supply  them 
without  such  pumping. 

Pressure  for  Fire  Service.  If  steam  fire  engines  are  used  and  depended 
upon  as  in  many  American  cities,  the  only  requirement  for  pressure  is  that 
during  fires  and  with  the  heaviest  draft  the  pipes  shall  have  sufficient  capa- 
city to  supply  water  to  the  steam  fire  engines  and  at  the. same  time  retain  as 
much  pressure  as  is  needed  for  domestic  service.  If  the  pressure  is  higher, 
hose  streams  can  be  obtained  from  the  hydrants  without  the  use  of  the  fire 
engines.  The  additional  pressure  to  permit  this  to  be  done  is  very  desirable. 
70  lbs.  during  fires  is  the  lowest  pressure  that  permits  effective  hose  streams 


166 


Reservoirs  and  Standpipes 


to  be  obtained  for  use  on  buildings  of  moderate  size.  If  only  residences  are 
involved,  50  or  60  lbs.  will  give  fair  streams.  In  business  districts  with 
large  buildings  better  hose  streams  are  obtained  with  higher  pressures,  and 
in  general  the  higher  the  pressure  the  better  the  fire  service.  100  lbs.  gives 
a good  working  service  without  steam  fire  engines.  Higher  pressures  up  to 
150  lbs.  and  more  are  available  in  many  cities. 

Reservoirs  and  Standpipes 

Distributing  Reservoirs  are  connected  immediately  with  the  distri- 
bution system  and  as  near  as  possible  to  the  center  of  population  supplied. 
Their  function  is  to  take  water  when  it  comes  and  to  make  it  available  when 
it  is  needed.  They  are  especially  to  maintain  the  service  at  times  of  fire  and 
on  other  occasions  when  water  is  drawn  rapidly.  Frequently  they  also  serve 
the  purpose  of  allowing  the  pumps  supplying  the  service  to  be  shut  down 
during  certain,  hours  of  the  day  or  at  night,  thereby  economizing  labor. 
This  is  especially  the  case  in  small  plants.  Open  reservoirs  with  earth 
embankments  or  masonry  walls  have  been  frequently  used  and  are  most 
economical  for  the  storage  of  large  quantities  of  surface  or  lake  waters. 
Ground  waters  and  filtered  waters  always  deteriorate  in  quality  in  such 
reservoirs,  owing  to  the  growth  of  certain  organisms  in  the  sunlight. 
covered  reservoirs  are  always  to  be  preferred  for  such  waters. 
Roofs  are  sometimes  used  to  exclude  the  light  and  keep  the  water  from 
deteriorating.  A light  roof  not  necessarily  water-tight  serves  this  purpose. 

Masonry  Covers  for  distributing  reservoirs  are  often  used.  At  Wash- 
ington, D.  C.,  Springfield,  Mass.,  and  elsewhere,  groined  arch  construction 
has  been  used.  Floors  to  carry  the  weight  of  the  roof  and  distribute  it  over 
the  whole  base  are  built  as  inverted  groined  arches.  The  piers  are  of  con- 
crete, as  thick  as  12%  of  the  span  on  centers,  and  not  more  than  12  times  as 
high  as  thick.  If  the  reservoir  is  deep,  large  piers  will  be  required  to  meet 
this  condition,  and  the  span  of  the  arches  is  increased  to  correspond.  The 
roof  is  of  groined  arch  vaulting  without  reinforcing.  The  outside  walls, 
with  a minimum  thickness  of  about  12%  of  their  height  at  top  and  16%  at 
bottom,  are  braced  at  the  bottom  by  the  floor  blocks  and  at  the  top  by  the 
roof  blocks,  and  are  calculated  as  reinforced  beams,  with  breaking 
moment  at  about  43%  of  the  distance  from  the  bottom  to  the  top,  equal  to 
4/i3,  being  the  height  of  the  wall  in  feet.  In  deep  reservoirs  economy  is 
secured  by  carrying  the  floor  on  a slope  of  about  1 in  6 to  the  raised  base  of 
the  walls,  thereby  reducing  the  height  of  the  walls.  The  masonry  is  backed 
up  by  solid  earth  embankment,  and  two  feet  of  soil  is  placed  over  the  top  to 
keep  frost  from  the  masonry.  Ventilators  are  provided  to  allow  the  passage 
of  air  as  water  rises  and  falls  in  the  reservoir.  The  top  is  covered  with  grass 
and  shrubbery,  but  trees  or  any  plants  with  strong  heavy  roots  should  not 
be  planted. 


167 


Installation 


PIPE  LINE  TESTING 


Special  precautions  should  be  taken  before  placing  hydraulic  pressure 
tests  on  a steel  pipe  line  after  the  same  has  been  laid  in  a trench,  prior  to 
placing  line  in  service. 

1.  See  that  all  pipe  line  centers  are  properly  backfilled  and  the  line  is 
thus  weighted  down  to  prevent  floating. 

2.  All  test  heads  or  gate  valves  should  be  securely  braced. 

3.  All  blow-off  valves  should  be  closed. 

4.  All  automatic  air  valves  should  be  in  position  and  in  proper  working 
order,  with  the  control  gate  valves  wide  open. 

5.  No  section  of  pipe  should  be  tested  without  having  at  least  one  auto- 
matic air  valve  installed  and  in  proper  working  order,  even  though 
the  same  may  not  be  required  for  permanent  operation. 


168 


Installation 


U 

INSTALLATION  OF  LARGE  STEEL  PIPES 
Transportation 

Pipe  is  unloaded  from  the  cars  by  any  convenient  equipment  such  as  a 
locomotive  crane,  derrick,  yard  gantry  or  other  apparatus  or  it  can  be  un- 
, oaded  by  hand  by  snubbing  it  with  a preventer  line  and  rolling  it  down 
iiclined  skids  or  it  can  be  hauled  or  lowered  by  the  aid  of  teams. 

Distribution  along  the  pipe  line  is  governed  largely  by  the  topography 
of  the  country,  the  length  of  the  line,  the  size  of  the  pipe  and  the  facilities 
coivenient.  For  a large  amount  of  heavy  pipe  in  a tolerably  level  country 
it  }ays  to  construct  a narrow  gage  service  track  and  haul  the  pipe  with 
diney  locomotives. 

7or  short  lines  or  very  light  pipe  delivery  can  be  made  by  automobile 
trrkks  or  trucks  and  trailers  or  the  pipe  can  be  loaded  directly  on  timber 
sleds  or  on  pole  wagons  according  to  topographical  and  weather  conditions. 
It  is  distributed  close  to  the  line  of  the  trench  and  securely  blocked  to  pre- 
vent at  from  rolling  down  hill.  Generally  it  is  more  convenient  to  handle 
when  aid  parallel  with  the  trench  but  when  the  topography  does  not  permit 
this  arangement  it  may  be  placed  at  a skew  or  at  right  angles  to  the  axis 
of  the  irench.  In  any  case  it  can  be  slewed,  rolled  or  snubbed  into  position 
for  finally  lowering  into  the  trench,  due  care  being  given  to  protection  of 
the  coa  ing. 

Trench  Excavation 

The  irench  is  usually  made  with  a clear  width  of  12  to  18  in.  more  than 
the  diameter  of  the  pipe  and  deep  enough  to  provide  at  least  2 ft.  of  cover 
over  the  op  of  the  pipe.  This  amount  of  earth  is  considered  necessary  for 
adequate  Drotection  from  loads  and  impact  exclusive  of  protection  required 
from  fros . 

In  ver  rough  or  stony  country  it  may  be  necessary  to  make  the  excava- 
tion by  haid  or  with  scrapers  and  teams,  but  the  latter  method  necessitates 
sloping  bulks.  In  shale,  hardpan  or  rock,  drilling  with  compressed  air 
machines  md  blasting  are  generally  necessary  although  soft  or  rotten  rock 
and  hard  strata  may  sometimes  be  excavated  by  steam  shovels  without 
, blasting.  


169 


Installation 


When  the  amount  of  work,  character  of  the  soil  and  the  topography  ' 
permit,  it  is  generally  more  rapid  and  economical  to  excavate  with  a trench 
machine  or  a light  revolving  steam  shovel  with  a long  boom  and  bucket. 

When  the  revolving  steam  shovel  is  used,  it  travels  over  the  excavated 
trench  supported  on  timber  mats  spanning  the  trench  that  are  taken  up  ii 
the  rear  and  laid  down  in  advance  by  the  shovel  itself  as  it  progresses.  Tie 
use  of  the  steam  shovel  for  excavation  is  of  advantage  in  that  it  permits  tie 
separation  of  the  spoil  into  waste  and  into  suitable  backfilling  material. 

In  order  to  accommodate  or  rivet  and  caulk  the  transverse  field  j oints30 
ft.  apart,  bell  holes  4 ft.  long  and  1 ft.  deep  are  dug  at  the  bottom  of  ;he 
trench  and  between  then  the  bottom  is  carefully  levelled  to  uniform  gude 
to  support  the  pipe  continuously. 

Lowering  and  Assembling 

The  pipe  trench  is  spanned  by  transverse  wooden  skids  on  which  the 
pipe  is  rolled  in  a position  directly  above  the  centre  line  .of  the  trenm  and 
with  the  rear  end  of  the  section  just  over  the  forward  end  of  the  list  as- 
sembled section.  One  or  two  stiff  leg  derricks  are  set  opposite  tie  pipe 
section  on  the  side  of  the  trench  or  a pair  of  tripods  with  hand  crate  oper- 
ating manilla  tackles  are  set  up  over  the  pipe,  one  near  each  end,  manilla 
rope  slings  are  placed  around  the  pipe  and  engage  the  tackles,  the  pipe  is 
hoisted  slightly,  skids  removed,  and  the  pipe  lowered  to  appDximate 
position  on  the  bottom  of  the  trench. 

When  the  pipe  is  intended  for  riveted  transverse  circular  fied  joints, 
the  rear  end  of  the  last  section  is  entered  in  the  forward  end  of  the  preceding 
section  by  means  of  steel  spud  bars  flattened  on  one  end  and  pointed  on  the 
other  end.  The  flat  end  is  used  as  a wedge  for  entering  the  pip  and  the 
, pointed  end  as  a drift  to  engage  the  open  rivet  holes  and  pull  then  to  regis- 
tration. The  bars  are  made  a few  inches  shorter  than  the  pipe  dameter  so 
that  they  may  have  clearance  for  operation  inside  the  pipe.  Wha  the  rivet 
holes  register  they  are  service  bolted  and  matched  with  a few  idditional 
drift  pins  to  prevent  the  possibility  of  displacement  by  creeping, expansion 
or  contraction  or  by  disturbances  in  assembling  the  next  section.  When 
necessary  the  entrance  of  one  pipe  into  the  next  may  be  promoted  by  a 
longitudinal  pull  and  hoist  with  the  derrick. 


170 


Installation 


For  a pipe  of  medium  size,  say  40  in.  in  diameter,  the  normal  pipe  laying 
gang  consists  of  about  25  to  35  men  who  roll  the  pipe  on  the  skids,  bring  up 
and  set  the  derricks,  enter  the  pipe  sections,  and  bolt  up  the  joints. 


i 


With  field  riveted  joints,  vertical  and  horizontal  angles  up  to  a deflec- 
tion of  three  degrees  can  be  made  with  standard  sections  entered  in  tangent 
alignment  and  then  forced  into  transverse  positions  corresponding  to  the 
spacing  of  the  rivet  holes  carefully  located  to  conform  with  the  required 
deflection. 


Riveting 


The  five-man  riveting  gang  removes  the  temporary  joint  bolts,  lays  up 
the  steel  plate  tightly  with  an  iron  maul,  and  bolts  the  pipe  securely  with 
sufficient  bolts  to  hold  the  sheets  tight  for  reaming  and  riveting.  Riveting 
is  usually  done  by  pneumatic  tools,  operated  on  the  outside  except  for  the 
bottom  half  of  the  circumference  where  riveting  is  usually  done  from  the 
inside. 


Rivets  are  heated  in  hand  blast  coal  furnaces  on  the  surface  of  the  ground 
adjacent  to  the  pipe  joints  and  are  delivered  to  the  interior  of  the  pipe 
through  drop  holes  up  to  2 in.  in  diameter  that  are  provided  for  that 
purpose  on  the  upper  side  of  the  pipe  at  every  joint  and  are  afterwards 
closed  with  screw  plugs. 


On  long  lines  or  where  the  work  is  subject  to  delay  or  interruption  at 
special  points,  the  pipe  is  assembled  sometimes  in  sections  commenced  at 
different  points  and  eventually  joined  to  each  other  by  special  closures. 
After  the  joints  are  riveted  they  are  painted  with  a special  preservative 
paint.  Extended  use  is  made  of  the  patented  high  pressure  flexible  coup- 
lings for  transverse  field  joints  with  lock-bar  pipe  for  gas  lines  and  on 
diameters  of  24"  and  on  under  water  lines  where  the  pipe  is  too  small  to  per^ 
mit  working  on  the  inside. 


After  the  field  joints  are  completed  the  pipe  is  tested  in  convenient 
lengths  of  from  1 to  4 miles  by  pneumatic  pressure  for  gas  mains  and  in 
lengths  of  from  3^2  to  2 miles  by  hydraulic  pressure  for  water  mains  to  a 
required  pressure,  usually  50%  in  excess  of  the  normal  working  pressure 
contemplated. 


171 


Installation 


Elevated  and  Submerged  Pipes 

When  it  is  desirable  to  elevate  pipe  concrete  piers  spaced  about  30  ft. 
apart  are  generally  used.  On  short  trestles  the  pipe  sections  may  often  be 
most  advantageously  distributed  on  the  surface  of  the  ground  and  suc- 
cessively lifted  to  position  by  derricks  or  locomotive  cranes. 

On  long  trestles  it  is  generally  desirable  to  provide  a service  track 
alongside  for  the  delivery  of  the  pipes.  Usually  one  of  the  track  stringers  is 
laid  directly  on  the  pier  tops  alongside  of  the  pipe  and  the  opposite  stringer 
is  supported  on  a single  vertical  falsework  post  braced  to  the  concrete  pier. 
The  saddle  tops  of  the  piers  are  spanned  by  skids  on  which  the  pipes  are 
delivered.  Afterwards  the  pipes  are  raised,  skids  removed  and  the  pipes 
lowered  to  position  on  the  piers  where  they  are  assembled  and  riveted  in  the 
same  manner  as  in  trenches. 

Submerged  pipe  is  always  laid  in  a protecting  trench  which  when  the 
conditions  will  permit,  is  generally  most  advantageously  excavated  by  a 
hydraulic  dredge.  If  the  bottom  is  of  rock  or  hard  strata  the  excavation  is 
usually  done  with  a dipper  dredge.  Submerged  pipe  should  be  provided 
with  flexible  joints  and  can  generally  be  floated  to  the  site  in  100  or  150  ft. 
lengths  closed  with  temporary  bulkheads.  They  are  sunk  to  the  bottom  by 
admitting  water  and  the  successive  sections  are  connected  up  by  divers 
making  the  bolted  joints.  Sometimes  the  pipes  are  sunk  between  guide 
piles  and  sometimes  special  equipment  for  floating,  sinking  and  connecting 
them  is  devised  and  installed  to  correspond  with  conditions  and  require- 
ments. 

Submerged  pipe  trenches  are  usually  backfilled  to  a depth  of  about  2 ft. 
and  when  they  are  exposed  to  wave  action,  the  covering  is  protected  by 
rip  rap. 


172 


Installation 


Fig.  75— LOCK-BAR  PIPE  LINE.  SHOWING  CLOSING  IN  PIECE. 


173 


Distribution  of  Water 


Data  for  Steel  Standpipes 


Required 

thickness 

Approximate  relative  costs 

Dia. 

Height 

Capa- 
city in 

of  lowest 

Thick- 

Approx 

plate 

imate 

in 

in 

thou- 

with 

ness  of 

weight 

Tank 

Founda- 

Total with 

feet 

feet 

sand 

stress  not 

bottom, 

in  net 

tion  5 feet 

10%  added 
for  appurte- 

Per 

gallons 

exceed- 

inches 

tons 

at 

deep  at 

thou- 

ing 

5 cents 

$7.00  per 

nances  and 

sand 

10  000 
lbs,  in 

per  lb 

cu  yd 

connections 

gals 

20 

20 

47 

X 

X 

9 

$ 880 

$540 

$1560 

$33 

30 

71 

X 

X 

12 

1237 

540 

1960 

28 

40 

94 

X 

X 

16 

1590 

540 

2350 

25 

50 

118 

is 

X 

20 

2040 

540 

2840 

24 

25 

20 

74 

X 

X 

12 

1155 

800 

2150 

29 

30 

110 

X 

X 

16 

1595 

800 

2640 

24 

40 

147 

is 

X 

21 

2090 

800 

3180 

22 

50 

184 

Vs 

X 

26 

2640 

800 

3780 

21 

60 

221 

is 

Vs 

34 

3390 

800 

4600 

21 

70 

258 

X. 

Vs 

42 

4210 

800 

5510 

21 

30 

20 

105 

X 

X 

15 

1450 

1110 

2820 

27 

30 

158 

X 

X 

20 

1980 

1110 

3400 

22 

40 

211 

5 

16 

X 

26 

2640 

1110 

4130 

20 

50 

264 

T6 

Vs 

37 

3700 

1110 

5300 

20 

60 

316 

X 

Vs 

47 

4680 

1110 

6370 

20 

70 

369 

is 

Vs 

59 

5870 

1110 

7680 

21 

80 

422 

% 

Vs 

72 

7200 

1110 

9150 

22 

90 

475 

X 

X 

89 

8920 

1110 

11350 

24 

100 

528 

ii 

X 

105 

10550 

1110 

12830 

24 

110 

580 

% 

y2 

124 

12400 

1110 

14890 

26 

120 

633 

1A 

16 

X 

144 

14400 

1110 

17090 

27 

35 

20 

144 

X 

X 

18 

1770 

1480 

3580 

25 

30 

215 

X 

25 

2470 

1480 

4350 

20 

40 

287 

Vs 

Vs 

37 

3680 

1480 

5670 

20 

50 

359 

X 

Vs 

48 

4830 

1480 

6950 

19 

60 

431 

is 

Vs 

61 

6130 

1480 

8380 

19 

70 

502 

k 

80 

8010 

1480 

10450 

21 

80 

574 

X 

X 

98 

9770 

1480 

12400 

22 

90 

646 

7A 

X 

118 

11850 

1480 

14700 

23 

100 

718 

15. 

X 

141 

14100 

1480 

17100 

24 

110 

790 

iX 

X 

166 

16580 

1480 

19900 

25 

120 

862 

IX 

Vs 

195 

19530 

1480 

23100 

27 

130 

934 

1 is 

Vs 

225 

22500 

1480 

26400 

28 

40 

20 

188 

X 

X 

21 

2150 

1900 

4450 

24 

30 

282 

is 

X 

30 

2990 

1900 

5490 

19 

40 

376 

is 

Vs 

45 

4500 

1900 

7040 

19 

50 

470 

is 

Vs 

60 

5980 

1900 

8670 

19 

60 

564 

% 

Vs 

77 

7750 

1900 

10620 

19 

70 

658 

X 

X 

101 

10120 

1900 

13220 

20 

80 

751 

Vs 

X 

125 

12500 

1900 

15850 

21 

90 

846 

H 

X 

151 

15140 

1900 

18750 

22 

100 

941 

1 is 

Vs 

184 

18400 

1900 

22350 

24 

110 

1035 

IX 

Vs 

216 

21600 

1900 

25850 

25 

120 

1130 

IX 

Vs 

251 

25100 

1900 

29700 

26 

174 


Reservoirs  and  Standpipes 


Data  for  Steel  Standpipes — Continued 


Dia. 

in 

feet 

Height 

in 

feet 

Capacity 
in  thou- 
sand 
gallons 

Required 
thickness 
of  lowest 
plate 
with 
stress  not 
exceed- 
ing 
10000 
lbs,  in 

Thick- 
ness of 
bottom, 
inches 

l 

Approx- 
imate 
weight 
in  net 
tons 

Apr 

Tank 

at 

5 cents 
per  lb 

)roximate  r( 

Founda- 
tion 5 feet 
deep  at 
$7.00  per 
cu  yd 

dative  costs 

Total  with 
10%  added 
for  appurte- 
nances and 
connections 

Per 

thou- 

sand 

gals 

45 

20 

238 

X 

X 

25 

2 480 

2350 

$5  320 

23 

30 

357 

Vs 

Vs 

40 

4 020 

2350 

7 030 

20 

40 

476 

X 

Vs 

55 

5 500 

2350 

8 650 

18 

50 

594 

Vs 

Vs 

74 

7 380 

2350 

10  700 

18 

60 

713 

X 

y2 

101 

10  100 

2350 

13  700 

19 

70 

833 

Vs- 

x 

128 

12  780 

2350 

16  640 

20 

80 

951 

TS 

V2 

156 

15  640 

2350 

19  800 

21 

90 

1070 

1* 

Vs 

193 

19  360 

2350 

23  900 

22 

100 

1190 

1 ~16 

Vs 

230 

23  020 

2350 

27  900 

23 

50 

20 

293 

T6 

X 

30 

2 970 

2870 

6 430 

22 

30 

440 

7 

1 6 

Vs 

50 

4 950 

2870 

8 600 

20 

40 

586 

A 

Vs 

68 

6 820 

2870 

10  660 

18 

50 

733 

» 

x 

97 

9 680 

2870 

13  800 

19 

60 

880 

13 

T6 

V2 

124 

12  430 

2870 

16  820 

19 

70 

1025 

if 

y2 

156 

15  620 

2870 

20  300 

20 

80 

1170 

ltf 

Vs 

198 

19  800 

2870 

24  900 

21 

90 

1320 

1 A 

Vs 

238 

23  870 

2870 

29  400 

22 

60 

20 

423 

T6 

x 

38 

3 830 

4050 

8 670 

20 

30 

633 

Vl 

Vs 

66 

6 600 

4050 

11  720 

19 

40 

846 

Vs 

Vs 

91 

9 120 

4050 

14  500 

17 

50 

1060 

tf 

y2 

132 

13  200 

4050 

19  000 

18 

60 

1270 

15 

T6 

y 

170 

17  030 

4050 

23  200 

18 

70 

1480 

l H 

Vs 

224 

22  440 

4050 

29  200 

20 

80 

1690 

IX 

Vs 

276 

27  600 

4050 

33  700 

20 

70 

20 

574 

Vs 

Vs 

61 

6 140 

5400 

12  700 

22 

30 

861 

T6 

Vs 

87 

8 760 

5400 

15  600 

18 

40 

1150 

X 

y 

133 

13  370 

5400 

20  600 

18 

50 

1438 

15 

y2 

178 

17  850 

5400 

25  600 

18 

60 

1725 

IVs 

Vs 

241 

24  160 

5400 

32  500 

19 

Overflows  should  invariably  be  provided  for  distributing  reservoirs  and 
should  have  sufficient  capacity  to  discharge  all  the  water  that  the  pipes  or 
pumps  are  capable  of  bringing  to  them.  Many  reservoirs  have  been  lost 
and  great  damage  done  by  failure  to  provide  sufficient  overflow  capacity. 

Standpipes  are  elevated  reservoirs  built  of  sheet  steel  entirely  above 
the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  are  commonly  used  where  the  desired  water 
level  is  a considerable  distance  above  the  surface  of  the  ground.  The  limita- 
tions of  steel  construction  do  not  in  general  allow  standpipes  to  be  used  in 
large  works.  Roofs  should  be  provided  on  all  standpipes  holding  waters 
deteriorating  in  the  sunshine,  that  is,  in  general,  for  ground  waters  and 
filtered  waters. 


175 


Distribution  System 


Reinforced  concrete  standpipes  have  been  used  with  satisfactory  results. 
It  does  not  appear  that  any  very  large  financial  saving  has  been  made  by 
their  use.  Towers  of  masonry  are  frequently  built  about  standpipes  for 
ornamental  purposes,  and  to  protect  them  from  wind  pressure,  and  to 
make  very  tall  standpipes  small  in  diameter  safe. 

fr  lElevated  Steel  Tanks  supported  on  steel  trestles  are  used  in  place  of 
standpipes  where  the  quantities  of  water  to  be  stored  are  not  large  and  the 
elevation  above  the  surface  of  the  ground  is  considerable.  The  East 
Providence  tank  holding  1 000  000  gallons,  from  135  to  205  feet  above  the 
ground,  was  erected  in  1904  at  a cost  of  about  $100  000.  (N.  E.  W.  W.  A. 

vol.  19,  p.  55).  Wooden  tanks  are  frequently  used  in  railway  supplies  and 
in  industrial  operations,  but  are  seldom  to  be  recommended  for  public 
water  supply. 

The  Distribution  System  includes  all  the  main  pipes  and  lateral  pipes, 
the  standpipes  and  distributing  reservoirs,  gates,  meters,  all  services  and 
connections  as  far  as  owned  by  the  water  department  within  and  near  the 
area  that  is  actually  served  with  water.  The  piping  in  a distribution 
system  must  be  designed  so  that  water  can  be  supplied  to  any  point  at  any 
time  at  the  greatest  rate  at  which  water  may  be  fairly  demanded  at 
that  place. 

Gridiron  System.  This  is  a system  in  which  all  pipes  are  connected 
with  all  other  pipes  at  street  intersections,  so  that  in  case  of  a fire  at  any 
point  water  comes  to  that  point  through  pipes  from  all  directions.  This  ar- 
rangement is  more  advantageous  in  supplying  water  for  fire  protection  than 
the  branching  system,  which  would  be  sufficient  and  often  best  for  supplying 
water  for  all  purposes  except  fire  service.  The  gridiron  system  is  practically 
universal  in  American  cities. 

An  economical  system  for  the  distribution  of  water  for  routine  uses  only 
would  consist  of  a system  of  branching  pipes,  each  branch  being  made 
sufficiently  large  to  supply  the  water  to  the  territory  served  by  it  at  the 
time  of  day  when  use  is  greatest. 

The  Gridiron  System  avoids  “dead  ends”  and  insures  circulation.  Pipes 
are  however  laid  below  frost  in  the  North  Eastern  States,  with  4 to  5 feet 
of  cover. 


17G 


Gates  and  Gate  Valves 


Gate  Valves  are  placed  at  intervals  on  all  pipe  lines  of  considerable 
length.  In  city  streets  they  are  generally  placed  near  intersections  and  so 
arranged,  in  the  gridiron  system,  that  any  section  may  be  shut  out  without 
interfering  with  the  remainder  while  at  the  same  time  but  a limited  number 
of  fire  hydrants  are  affected.  Outside  the  city  valves  are  placed  less  fre- 
quently, and  are  best  placed  on  summits  where  the  pressure  is  least.  The 
gates  serve  the  purpose  of  facilitating  tests  of  the  pipe  and  shutting  off 
portions  of  it  for  repairs  in  case  of  emergency. 

Gates  Smaller  than  the  Pipe  are  often  used  on  pipes  30  inches  in 
diameter  and  over,  connection  being  made  by  reducers  on  either  side.  The 
cost  is  less  and  the  smaller  gates  are  operated  more  quickly  and  easily. 
There  is  a little  head  lost,  and  the  smaller  the  gate  the  more  head  is  lost. 
This  is  controlling  in  determining  how  much  smaller  than  the  pipe  it  is  best 
to  make  the  gates. 

Loss  of  Head  in  Gates  with  Taper  Cone  Connections 

The  figures  given 
are  in  velocity 
heads  (or  in  feet, 
when  the  velocity 
in  the  main  pipe  is 
8.03  ft.  per  sec.) 
They  may  also  be 
taken  as  tenths  of 
feet  when  the  velo- 
city in  the  main 
pipe  is  2.54  ft.  per 
sec. 

Basis.  Loss  of  head  in  a gate,  0.15,  velocity  head.  Loss  of  head  in 
cones,  0.20  of  the  amount  that  the  velocity  head  at  the  throat  is  greater 
than  the  velocity  head  in  the  pipe. 

The  actual  amount  of  head  lost  in  a gate  depends  upon  the  form  of  gate, 
and  considerable  variations  are  to  be  anticipated  with  gates  of  different 
designs.  The  amount  lost  in  the  cones  depends  upon  the  taper  design  and 
smoothness  of  the  surfaces,  and  considerable  variations  either  way  are  to 
be  anticipated. 

Generally  24-inch  gates  may  be  used  on  30  and  36  inch  pipes,  30-inch 
gates  on  42  and  48  inch  pipes,  and  36-inch  gates  on  60  and  72  inch  pipes; 
but  if  head  or  elevation  is  very  valuable  the  gate  should  be  one  size  larger 
than  above  indicated. 

The  usual  form  of  valve  consists  of  a “Body”  casting  connected  in  the 
line  of  the  pipe  surmounted  by  a “Bonnet”  a “Dome”  connected  to  the 
body  by  flanges.  The  “Disc”  rises  into  the  dome  when  the  gate  is  opened 
and  is  actuated  by  a screw  stem  of  either  “rising”  or  “non-rising”  type. 

The  Disc  is  either  wedge  shaped  fitting  into  corresponding  grooves  in 
the  body  or  is  made  of  two  parallel  plates  which  are  forced  apart  by  fold 
ing  wedges,  often  the  disc  is  seated  in  closing  and  vice  versa  in  opening. 


Diam. 
of  gate, 
inches 

Diameter  of  pipe  in  inches 

30 

36 

42 

48 

54 

60 

72 

20 

1.57 

3.47 

6.59 

24 

0.65 

1.57 

3.07 

5 !4o 

S.72 

30 

0.15 

0.52 

1.14 

2.09 

3.47 

5^40 

11.45 

36 

0.15 

0.44 

0.91 

1.57 

2.51 

5.40 

42 

0.15 

0.40 

0.75 

1.25 

2.83 

48 

0.15 

0.35 

0.65 

1.57 

177 


Water  Consumption 


Water  Consumption 

Per  Capita  Consumption  is  the  amount  of  water  used  per  day  for 
each  person  living  in  the  city  of  area  supplied  on  the  basis  of  the  annual 
average  figures.  In  other  words,  it  is  the  whole  quantity  of  water  supplied 
in  gallons  in  one  year,  divided  by  365  and  divided  by  the  total  population 
of  the  district  supplied  with  water. 

Maximum  Monthly  Rate  of  Consumption.  During  that  month  in 
the  year  when  the  consumption  is  highest,  from  15  to  25%  more  water  is 
used  than  the  average  for  the  year.  In  some  cases  40%  more  water  is  used 

High  monthly  rates  of  consumption  are  usually  associated  with  either 
a very  dry  period, with  more  than  the  usual  sprinkling  of  streets  and  lawns 
or  an  exceptionally  cold  month,  with  a continued  draft  of  water  through  many 
services  to  keep  exposed  and  imperfectly  protected  pipes  from  freezing. 
Where  services  are  metered  the  excess  consumption  in  cold  weather 
largely  disappears.  It  is  cheaper  to  cover  the  pipes  or  otherwise  to  protect 
them  from  freezing  than  to  pay  for  the  water  that  it  is  necessary  to  allow 
to  run  in  order  to  protect  them.  ( ! 

* Meters  and  Consumption  w ^ 1 1 

r-  - — - - — - — - y-’S 

The  general  effect,  of  meters  is  to  reduce  consumption  generally  by  elim- 
inating waste.  It  appears  that  the  tendency  is  for  an  unmetered  city  to 
consume  more  than  twice  as  much  water  as  one  which  is  metered. 

One  of  the  accompanying  tables  gives  the  percentage  of  consumption 
metered  and  the  per  capita  consumption  in  each  of  the  155  cities  of  more 
than  30,000  population.  These  figures  are  compiled  from  statistics  for  the 
year  1915  published  by  the  Census  Board.  Another  table  combines  these 
- figures  showing  the  number  of  cities  which  meter  all  their  water,  and  the 
average  per  capita  consumption  per  day  of  the  group:  the  same  for  those 
which  meter  between  90%  and  99%,  inclusive;  and  so  on  for  all  cities, 
grouped  by  10  units  of  percentage  of  water  metered. 

Of  the  26  cities  reporting  all  water  metered,  only  one  had  a per  capita 
consumption  greater  than  the  average  for  all  cities;  of  the  70  having  more 
than  % of  the  water  metered,  only  10  had  a per  capita  consumption  greater 
than  the  average  for  all  cities.  The  average  consumption  for  these  70  cities 
was  103  gallons,  while  that  for  the  47  cities  showing  less  than  Y metered, 
was  161  gallons. 

There  are  a few  cities  with  fairly  low  consumption;  also  a few  very  com- 
pletely metered  ones  with  a rather  high  rate.  But  these  averages  all  of  the 
larger  cities  of  the  country  (not  a number  of  “hand  picked”  ones)  show  a 
most  decided  tendency  of  consumption  rates  to  fall  as  meters  are  intro- 
duced. The  more  rapid  drop  for  the  first  25  to  30  percent  of  water  metered 
apparently  shows  that  metering  persuades  the  large  consumer  to  economize 
on  water  to  a greater  extent  that  it  does  the  small  ones. 


* Municipal  Journal,  June  1,  1916. 


178 


Meterage  & Consumption  in  Larger  Cities 


CITY 

Percent 
of  Water 
Metered 

rer  uapita 
Consump- 
tion (a) 

CITY 

Percent 
of  Water 
Metered 

Jr'er  Uapita 
Consump- 
tion (a) 

Akron 

. 30 

156 

Fall  River 

57 

48 

Albany 

. 33 

230 

. Fitchburg 

100 

104 

Allentown 

1 

120 

Flint 

60 

120 

Altoona 

6 

108 

Fort  Wayne 

100 

64 

Amsterdam 

14 

224 

Fort  Worth 

100 

79 

Atlanta 

. 100 

113 

Galveston 

99 

95 

Atlantic  City .... 

. 98 

156 

Grand  Rapids 

60 

123 

Auburn 

21 

177 

Hamilton 

85 

84 

Augusta 

9 

196 

Flarrisburg 

90 

111 

Aurora 

75 

99 

Hartford 

100 

64 

Austin 

75 

122 

Haverhill 

27 

172 

Baltimore 

27 

131 

Hoboken 

70 

93 

Bay  City 

30 

172 

Holyoke 

29 

112 

Bayonne 

100 

120 

Houston . . 

58 

86 

Bellingham 

25 

162 

Jackson 

100 

93 

Binghamton 

59 

127 

Jacksonville 

95 

89 

Birmingham ..... 

100 

b 

Jamestown 

65 

77 

Boston 

46 

111 

Jersey  City 

24 

149 

Brockton 

100 

42 

Joliet 

90 

201 

Buffalo 

32 

342 

Kalamazoo 

100 

64 

Cambridge 

. 33 

86 

Kansas  City,  Kan. . 

52 

157 

Camden 

6 

127 

Kansas  City,  Mo.  . 

71 

149 

Canton 

. 35 

124 

Knoxville 

47 

220 

Cedar  Rapids . . . . 

. 100 

90 

La  Crosse 

56 

125 

Charlotte 

. 100 

63 

Lancaster 

29 

133 

Chelsea 

. 67 

90 

Lansing 

80 

106 

Chicago 

22 

226 

Lawrence 

93 

43 

Cincinnati 

61 

130 

Lima 

80 

147 

Cleveland 

99 

118 

Lincoln 

100 

78 

Colorado  Springs . . 

2 

180 

Lorain 

37 

119 

Columbia 

. 100 

141 

Los  Angeles 

80 

141 

Columbus 

95 

92 

Louisville 

45 

129 

Council  Bluffs 

75 

146 

Lowell 

56 

99 

Covington 

100 

46 

Lynchburg 

15 

223 

Dallas 

50 

115 

Lynn 

50 

64 

Dayton 

100 

117 

McKeesport ...... 

66 

113 

Decatur 

95 

121 

Macon 

50 

150 

Denver 

7 

b • 

Malden 

100 

46 

Detroit 

42 

189 

Manchester 

25 

64 

Dubuque 

100 

110 

Memphis 

60 

87 

Duluth 

73 

102 

Milwaukee 

72 

110 

E.  Orange 

44 

68 

Minneapolis 

92 

81 

El  Paso 

90 

69 

Mobile 

32 

146 

Erie 

36 

231 

Montgomery 

75 

80 

Evansville 

18 

164 

Muskogee 

88 

92 

Everett 

46 

72 

Nashville 

75 

106 

179 


Meterage  & 

Consumption  in  Larger  Cities 

Percent 

Per  Capita 

Percent 

Per  Capita 

CITY 

of  Water 

Consump- 

CITY 

os  Water 

Consump- 

Metered 

tion  (a) 

Metered 

tion  (a) 

Newark 

...  46 

107 

San  Diego 

. 100 

137 

New  Bedford.  . 

. . . 96 

72 

San  Francisco 

7 

b 

New  Britain.  . 

...  99 

85 

Savannah 

2 

140 

New  Orleans.  . 

...  100 

74 

Schenectady 

11 

130 

Newport 

...  66 

60 

Seattle 

94 

160 

Newton 

...  61 

70 

Sioux  City 

. 100 

78 

New  York.  . . . 

...  26 

102 

Somerville 

. 65 

74 

Niagara  Falls . 

...  40 

283 

Spokane 

65 

246 

Norfolk 

...  80 

94 

South  Bend 

. 33 

85 

Oklahoma  City 

. . . . 98 

116 

Springfield,  111. . . . 

99 

150 

Omaha 

...  96 

118 

Springfield,  O . . . . 

. 48 

155 

Orange 

...  100 

72 

Springfield,  Mass. 

. 60 

103 

Oshkosh 

...  38 

130 

St.  Louis 

30 

128 

Pasadena 

...  96 

120 

St.  Paul 

61 

70 

Pawtucket 

...  90 

62 

Syracuse 

. 99 

147 

Perth  Amboy . 

...  55 

193 

Tacoma 

8 

430c 

Philadelphia.  . 

8 

182 

Taunton 

. 58 

65 

Pittsburgh .... 

15 

252 

Toledo 

90 

118 

Pittsfield 

15 

152 

Topeka 

. 100 

89 

Portland,  Ore. 

...  21 

141 

Trenton 

. 22 

153 

Portland,  Me. 

...  20 

130 

Troy. 

12 

314 

Providence.  . . . 

...  70 

65 

Waco 

. 33 

141 

Pueblo  

7 

295 

Washington 

59 

161 

Quincy 

...  90 

73 

Waterbury 

50 

100 

Reading 

...  20 

139 

Waterloo 

. 62 

54 

Richmond 

...  70 

105 

Wheeling 

6 

309 

Rochester.  . . . . 

70 

106 

Wilmington,  Del. . 

. 100 

105 

Rockford 

...  100 

58 

Worcester 

. 74 

78 

Sacramento.  . . . 

366 

Woonsocket 

. 98 

34 

Saginaw 

...  is 

330 

Yonkers 

. 100 

91 

Salem 

...  25 

89 

Youngstown 

. 33 

134 

Salt  Lake  City . 

. . . 33 

203 

Average 

40 

139 

Metering  Water  and  Average  Consumption 

Water 

Water 

supplied, 

supplied, 

Percent  of  Water  Number 

gallons 

Percent  of  Water 

Number 

gallons 

Metered 

of  Cities 

per  capita 

Metered 

of  Cities 

per  capita 

per  day 

per  day 

100 

26 

85 

40  to  49 

9 

138 

90  to  99 

. . . 23 

109 

30  to  39 

15 

184 

80  to  89 

6 

128 

20  to  29 

15 

142 

70  to  79 

. . . 13 

103 

10  to  19 

8 

235 

60  to  69 

14 

113 

0 to  9 

13 

195 

50  to  59 

13 

117 

a — average  amount  of  water  supplied  to  distribution  system  daily,  divided  by  population  served. 

b — not  reported 

c — about  half  this  amount  overflows  from  a low  service  reservoir  and  is  allowed  to  run  to  waste. 

180 


Water  Consumption 


Water  Consumption 

Maximum  Weekly  and  Daily  Rates.  There  will  be  some  weeks  and 
some  days  when  the  quantities  will  considerably  exceed  the  average  for  the 
maximum  month.  Generally  a maximum  daily  consumption  of  10  or  15 
gallons  per  capita  in  excess  of  the  average  for  the  maximum  month  must  be 
expected. 

Hourly  Fluctuations  in  Flow.  Water  is  required  primarily  for  domes- 
tic and  manufacturing  purposes,  and  for  these  purposes  is  required  in  quan- 
tities that  are  fairly  well  determined  and  at  times  that  do  not  vary  very 
much  from  day  to  day.  The  greatest  normal  use  of  water  is  in  the  morning 
hours.  The  afternoon  use  is  a little  less.  The  night  use  of  water  is  compara- 
tively small. 

Amount  of  Growth  to  be  Anticipated.  In  designing  pipe  lines,  it  is 
necessary  to  anticipate  growth  to  a certain  extent  in  order  to  avoid  the 
necessity  of  duplicating  the  lines  at  an  early  date.  On  the  other  hand, 
anticipating  future  growth  to  an  unreasonable  extent  results  in  burdening 
present  takers  with  the  cost  of  facilities  provided  for  the  future  to  an  un- 
reasonable extent.  In  general,  all  new  pipe  lines  should  be  designed  to 
serve  a population  50%  greater  than  the  present  population,  and  in  cases 
of  special  difficulty,  where  an  additional  line  would  be  specially  difficult  or 
expensive,  a greater  growth  than  this  should  be  anticipated. 

Increasing  the  diameter  of  the  pipe,  1 % increases  the  carrying  capacity 
2.63%,  and  increases  the  cost  of  the  pipe  from  1%  to  1.5%,  according  to 
the  size  and  class  of  pipe  and  the  conditions  under  which  it  is  laid.  On  this 
basis  adding  1%  to  the  investment  adds  from  1.75%  to  2.63%  to  the  carry- 
ing capacity,  $100  invested  now  in  increasing  the  size  of  the  pipe  adds  as 
much  to  the  capacity  as  from  $175  to  $263  invested  in  a new  pipe  line  at 
some  time  in  the  future  if  the  new  line  is  of  the  same  size  as  the  present  one. 
$100  invested  now  at  5%  will  amount  to  $175  in  11  years  and  $263  in  20 
years;  at  4%  the  increase  will  be  reached  in  14  years  and  25  years  respec- 
tively. In  general  these  represent  economical  limits  of  time  to  be  antici- 
pated. 

As  a general  rule  design  should  be  made  for  ten  or  fifteen  years  only 
where  the  growth  is  over  3%  per  annum  or  where  money  is  hard  to  get,  and 
design  for  twenty  or  twenty-five  years  where  growth  is  under  2%  per  annum 
or  where  money  is  obtainable  at  a low  rate,  and  also  in  all  cases  where  pipe 
is  less  than  12  inches  in  diameter  or  where  pressure  is  light.  There  are  many 
exceptions  to  this  rule  under  peculiar  conditions  and  it  must  be  applied 
with  caution. 


181 


Water  Consumption 


Population  that  can  be  Supplied  by  Pipes  of  Various  Sizes 

Based  on  an  average  use  of  one  hundred  gallons  per  capita  daily 


Diameter 
of  one 
pipe  line, 
inches 

For  two  or 
more 

pipes,  sum 
of  areas 
in  sq.  ins. 
Sectional 
area  of 
pipe  sq.  ins. 

With  an  average  amount  of 
fire  service  * 

With  no  fire  service.  Max- 
imum draft  170  gallons  per 
capita  daily 

Flat 

slopes  and 
long  lines 
V =2 

Average 

condition 

V=3 

Steep 
slopes  and 
short  lines 
V =4 

Flat 

slopes  and 
long  lines 
V =2 

Average 

conditions 

V=3 

Steep 
slopes  and 
short  lines 
V =4 

4 

13 

12 

27 

48 

660 

990 

1 330 

6 

28 

61 

132 

228 

1490 

2 240 

2 950 

8 

50 

182 

392 

666 

2 650 

3 980 

5 320 

10 

79 

425 

900 

1 500 

4 150 

6 190 

8 280 

12 

113 

835 

1 720 

2 850 

5 950 

8 950 

12  000 

16 

201 

2 320 

4 620 

7 400 

10  600 

15  900 

21  300 

20 

314 

4 940 

9 520 

14  900 

16  500 

24  800 

33  200 

24 

452 

8 900 

16  700 

25  500 

23  900 

35  800 

47  800 

30 

707 

17  200 

32  000 

48  000 

37  400 

56  100 

74  800 

36 

1018 

30  300 

53  300 

78  200 

53  800 

80  500 

108  000 

42 

1385 

46  600 

80  400 

117  000 

73  200 

110  000 

146  000 

48 

1810 

67  100 

114  000 

163  000 

95  300 

142  000 

190  000 

54 

2290 

91  600 

153000 

219  000 

121  000 

181  000 

242  000 

60 

2827 

120  000 

200  000 

282  000 

148  000 

224  000 

299  000 

•Gallons  daily  = 120  pop.  +1  000  000  Pop.  in  thousands. 


Fire  Protection 

The  Requirements  of  Fire  Service  vary  greatly.  In  European  cities, 
with  fire-proof  buildings,  but  little  water  is  required  for  the  extinguishment 
of  fire.  In  tropical  countries,  where  buildings  are  widely  separated  and 
represent  but  small  value,  and  often  in  wet  climates,  it  does  not  pay  to 
furnish  fire  service.  It  is  better  to  let  buildings  burn  now  and  then  than  to 
provide  long  and  larger  pi,pes  and  other  equipment  that  would  be  required 
for  fire  service.  In  American  cities  wooden  construction  is  common  and 
wooden  floors  are  used  in  many  buildings  having  brick  walls.  A large  pipe 
capacity  is  required  to  provide  the  water  which  is  required  for  extinguishing 
fires  in  such  buildings. 


182 


Water  Consumption 


The  Amount  of  Water  required  for  extinguishing  fires  is  not  very 
large  in  the  aggregate,  but  when  fires  occur  it  is  wanted  at  a high  rate,  and 
pipes  must  therefore  be  provided  of  large  capacity  to  meet  this  demand. 
Pipe  sizes  required  for  fire  protection  in  American  cities  are  always  larger 
than  those  required  for  other  uses,  and  the  size  of  pipe  to  be  selected  within 
the  area  of  the  distribution  system,  and  between  it  and  the  distributing 
reservoir  or  pumping  station  where  direct  pumping  is  used,  is  mainly  con- 
trolled by  questions  of  fire  protection. 

Water  Required  for  Fire  Service.  The  amount  of  water  to  be  pro- 
vided for  fire  service  depends  upon  the  size  and  number  of  fire  steams 
required  in  a given  area. 

For  Average  American  Conditions,  take  the  square  root  of  the  popu- 
lation in  thousands  and  this  indicates  the  rate  in  millions  of  gallons  of 
water  per  day  at  which  water  should  be  provided  for  fire  service. 

For  example : If  the  population  is  9 thousand  allow  water  at  a rate  of 
3 million  gallons  per  day  for  fire  service.  If  the  population  is  25  thousand 
allow  5 million  gallons  per  day,  and  if  100  thousand  allow  10  million  gallons 
of  water  per  day. 

The  pipes  must  be  designed  large  enough  so  that  the  quantity  of  water  for 
fire  service  will  be  available  even  though  the  fire  occurs  at  a time  when  water 
is  being  used  at  a high  rate  for  other  purposes.  It  is  not  necessary  to  assume 
the  extreme  maximum  rate  of  draft  for  other  purposes;  some  chances  can 
be  taken.  To  find  the  required  capacity  add,  first,  the  average  annual  rate 
of  consumption;  second,  20  gallons  per  capita  to  cover  ordinary  fluctua- 
tions; third,  the  amount  of  water  allowed  for  fire  protection.  If  the  fluctua- 
tions are  unusually  great,  take  30  or  40  gallons  per  capita  in  place  of  20. 

Concentration  of  Water  for  Fire  Service.  In  the  case  of  cities  up  to 
100  000  inhabitants  it  is  generally  necessary  to  provide  pipe  capacity  so 
that  the  whole  amount  of  water  provided  for  fire  protection  can  be  delivered 
with  some  loss  of  pressure  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  closest,  largest, 
highest  and  most  valuable  buildings,  and  at  each  of  such  points  if  there 
are  several;  elsewhere  piping  capable  of  delivering  smaller  quantities 
varying  with  the  kind  and  value  of  construction  and  the  proximity  of  the 
various  buildings. 

This  table  may  be  used  as  a very  general  guide.  With  high  per  capita 
consumption  and  bad  fire  conditions  the  sizes  should  be  increased.  Under 
opposite  conditions  they  may  be  reduced.  It  will  often  pay  to  make  pipe 
sizes  a little  smaller  in  the  distribution  and  larger  in  the  supply  mains  with- 
out changing  the  total  capacity  of  the  system. 


183 


Water  Consumption 


A Standard  Fire  Stream  is  one  flowing 250  gallons  per  minute  through  a 
smooth  nozzle  1 }/$  inches  in  diameter,  with  a pressure  at  the  base  of  the  tip 
of  r45  pounds.  Such  a stream  is  effective  to  a height  of  70  feet  above  the 
ground  or  with  a horizontal  carry  not  exceeding  63  feet.  When  fed  through 
the  *best  quality  23^-inch  rubber-lined  hose  the  hydrant  pressure  required 
to  throw  such  a stream  taken  while  the  stream  is  running  is  as  follows: 
Feet  of  hose  = 50  100  200  400  600 

Lb.  per  sq.  in  = 56  63  77  106  135 

The  hydrant  pressure  is  less  during  the  fire  than  at  other  times,  because 
more  head  is  lost  in  friction  in  the  pipes,  and  the  ordinary  pressure  must 
be  greater  to  insure  standard  conditions  during  fire.  The  best  hydrant 
pressure  for  general  use  is  considered  to  be  from  80  to  100  lbs.,  but  as  other 
conditions  are  frequently  controlling,  fire  service  must  be  largely  adapted 
to  what  is  available. 

The  best  statement  of  the  hydraulics  of  fire  streams  and  nozzles  is  in 
a paper  by  John  R.  Freeman,  Trans.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.,  1889,  vol.  21,  P,  303. 


Slope  Reduction  Tables 


Data  Useful  in  Steel  Conduit  Design 


TABLES 

FOR  THE 

REDUCTION  OF 

SLOPE  MEASUREMENTS 

TO 

HORIZONTAL  DISTANCES 

FROM  10  TO  100  FEET, 

WITH  DIFFERENCE  OF  LEVEL 

FROM  0.0  TO  20.0  FEET 


SLOPE  DISTANCES  IN  FEET  AT  TOP  OF  PAGE. 

DIFFERENCES  OF  ELEVATION,  IN  FEET  IN  TENTHS,  IN  SIDE  COLUMNS. 

TABLE  OF  CORRECTIONS  IN  BODY  OF  SHEET,  CARRIED  TO  FEET, 
TENTHS,  HUNDREDS  AND  THOUSANDTHS  OF  A FOOT. 

EXAMPLE: 

GIVEN  A SLOPE  MEASUREMENT  OF  80  FEET,  WITH  A DIFFERENCE  OF 
LEVEL  C'F  2.1  FEET,  TO  ASCERTAIN  THE  HORIZONTAL  DISTANCE— 

FROM  THE  TA.BLE,  UNDER  80  AND  OPPOSITE  2.1,  FIND  .028  FEET,  THE 
CORRECTION  TO  BE  DEDUCTED: 

THEN  80.00— .028— 79.972  FEET,  THE  CORRECT  HORIZONTAL  DISTANCE. 


185 


Slope  Reduction  Tables 


10 

20 

30 

40 

50 

60 

70 

80 

90 

100 

0.0 

0.0 

.1 

.001 

.1 

.2 

.002 

.001 

.001 

.001 

*2 

.3 

.005 

.002 

.002 

.001 

.001 

.001 

.001 

.001 

.001 

.001 

.3 

.4 

.008 

.004 

.003 

.002 

.001 

.001 

.001 

.001 

.001 

.001 

.4 

0.5 

.013 

.006 

.004 

.003 

.003 

.002 

.002 

.002 

.001 

.001 

0.5 

.6 

.018 

.009 

.006 

.005 

.004 

.003 

.003 

.002 

.002 

.002 

.6 

.7 

.025 

.012 

.008 

.006 

.005 

.004 

.004 

.003 

.003 

.003 

.7 

.8 

.032 

.016 

.011 

.008 

.006 

.005 

.005 

.004 

.004 

.003 

.8 

.9 

.041 

.020 

.014 

.010 

.008 

.007 

• 

.006 

.005 

.005 

.004 

.9 

1.0 

.050 

.025 

.017 

.013 

.010 

.008 

.007 

.006 

.006 

.005 

l.f 

.1 

.061 

.030 

.020 

.015 

.012 

.010 

.008 

.008 

.007 

.006 

1 

.2 

.072 

.036 

.024 

.018 

.014 

.012 

.010 

.009 

.008 

.007 

2 

.3 

.085 

.042 

.028 

.021 

.017 

.014 

.012 

.011 

.009 

.009 

.3 

.4 

.099 

.049 

.033 

.025 

.020 

.016 

.014 

.012 

.011 

.010 

.4 

1.5 

.113 

.056 

.038 

.028 

.023 

.019 

.016 

.014 

.013 

.011 

1.5 

.6 

.129 

.064 

.043 

.032 

.026 

.021 

.018 

.016 

.014 

.013 

.6 

.7 

.146 

.072 

.048 

.036 

.029 

.024 

.021 

.018 

.016 

.015 

.7 

.8 

.163 

.081 

.054 

.041 

.032 

.027 

.023 

.020 

.018 

.016 

.8 

.9 

.182 

.090 

.060 

.045 

.036 

.030 

.026 

.023 

.020 

.018 

.9 

2.0 

.202 

.100 

.067 

.050 

.040 

.033 

.029 

.025 

.022 

.02C 

2.0 

.1 

.223 

.111 

.074 

.055 

.044 

.037 

.032 

.028 

.025 

.022 

.1 

.2 

.245 

.121 

.081 

.061 

.048 

.040 

.035 

.030 

.027 

.0  rA 

.2 

.3 

.268 

.133 

.088 

.066 

.053 

.044 

.038 

.033 

.029 

.0:7 

.3 

.4 

.292 

.145 

.096 

.072 

.058 

.048 

.041 

.036 

.032 

.029 

.4 

*2.5 

.317 

.157 

.104 

.078 

.063 

.052 

.045 

.039 

.035 

.<31 

2.5 

.6 

.344 

.170 

.113 

.085 

.068 

.056 

.048 

.042 

.038 

034 

.6 

.7 

.371 

.183 

.122 

.091 

.073 

.061 

.052 

.046 

.041 

037 

.7 

.8 

.400 

.197 

.131 

.098 

.079 

.065 

.056 

.049 

.044 

.039 

.8 

.9 

.429 

.211 

.141 

.105 

.086 

.070 

.060 

.053 

.047 

.042 

.9 

3.0 

.460 

.226 

.150 

.113 

.090 

.075 

.064 

.056 

.050 

.045 

3.0 

.1 

.493 

.242 

.161 

.120 

.096 

.080 

.069 

.060 

.053 

.048 

.1 

.2 

.526 

.258 

.171 

.128 

.103 

.085 

.073 

.064 

.057 

.051 

.2 

.3 

.560 

.274 

.182 

.136 

.109 

.091 

'.078 

.068 

.061 

.055 

.3 

.4 

.596 

.291 

.193 

.145 

.116 

.096 

.083 

.072 

.064 

.058 

.4 

3.5 

.633 

.309 

.205 

.153 

.123 

.102 

.088 

.077 

.061 

.061 

3.5 

.6 

.671 

.327 

.217 

.162 

.130 

.108 

.093 

.081 

.072 

.065 

.6 

.7 

.710 

.345 

.229 

.172 

.137 

.114 

.098 

.085 

.076 

.069 

.7 

.8 

.750 

.364 

.242 

.181 

.145 

.120 

.103 

.090 

.010 

.072 

.8 

.9 

.792 

.384 

.255 

.191 

.152 

.127 

.109 

.095 

.0*5 

.076 

.9 

4.0 

.835 

.404 

.268 

i 

.201 

.160 

.133 

.114 

.100 

.*89 

.080 

| 4.0 

186 


Slope  Reduction  Tables 


10 

20 

30 

40 

50 

60 

70 

80 

90 

100 

4.1 

.879 

.425 

.282 

.211 

.168 

.140 

.120 

.105 

.093 

.084 

4.1 

.2 

.925 

.446 

.295 

.221 

.177 

.147 

.126 

.110 

.098 

.088 

.2 

.3 

.972 

.468 

.310 

.232 

.185 

.154 

.132 

.116 

.103 

.092 

.3 

.4 

1.020 

.490 

.324 

.243 

.194 

.162 

.138 

.121 

.108 

.097 

.4 

4.5 

1.070 

.513 

.339 

.254 

.203 

.169 

.145 

.127 

.113 

.101 

4.5 

.6 

1.121 

.536 

.355 

.265 

.212 

.176 

.151 

.132 

.118 

.106 

.6 

.7 

1.173 

.560 

.370 

.277 

.222 

.184 

.158 

.138 

.123 

.111 

.7 

.8 

1.227 

.584 

.387 

.289 

.231 

.192 

.165 

.144 

.128 

.115 

.8 

.9 

1.283 

.609 

.403 

.301 

.241 

.200 

.172 

.150 

.134 

.120 

.9 

5.0 

1.340 

.635 

.420 

.314 

.251 

.209 

.179 

.157 

.139 

.125 

5.0 

.1 

1.398 

.661 

.437 

.326 

.261 

.217 

.186 

.163 

.145 

.130 

.1 

.2 

1.458 

.688 

.454 

.339 

.271 

.226 

.193 

.169 

.150 

.135 

.2 

.3 

1.520 

.715 

.472 

.353 

.282 

.235 

.201 

.176 

.156 

.141 

.3 

.4 

1.583 

.743 

.490 

.366 

.293 

.244 

.209 

.183 

.162 

.146 

.4 

5.5 

1.648 

.771 

.508 

.380 

.303 

.253 

.216 

.189 

.168 

.151 

5.5 

.6 

1.715 

.800 

.527 

.394 

.314 

.262 

.224 

.196 

.174 

.157 

.6 

.7 

1.784 

.829 

.546 

.408 

.326 

.271 

.233 

.203 

.181 

.163 

.7 

.8 

1.854 

.859 

.566 

.423 

.338 

.281 

.241 

.211 

.187 

.168 

.8 

.9 

1.926 

.890 

.586 

.438 

.349 

.291 

.249 

.218 

.194 

.174 

.9 

6.0 

2.000 

.921 

.606 

.453 

.361 

.301 

.258 

.225 

.200 

.180 

6.0 

.1 

2.076 

.953 

.627 

.468 

.374 

.311 

.266 

.233 

.207 

.186 

.1 

.2 

2.154 

.985 

.648 

.483 

.386 

.321 

.275 

.241 

.214 

.192 

.2 

.3 

2.234 

1.018 

.669 

.499 

.399 

.332 

.284 

.249 

.221 

.199 

.3 

.4 

2.316 

1.052 

.690 

.515 

.411 

.342 

.293 

.256 

.228 

.205 

.4 

6.5 

2.400 

1.086 

.?13 

.532 

.424 

.353 

.303 

.265 

.235 

.212 

6.5 

.6 

2.487 

1.120 

.735 

.548 

.438 

.364 

.312 

.273 

.242 

.218 

.6 

.7 

2.576 

1.155 

.758 

.565 

.451 

.375 

.321 

.281 

.250 

.225 

.7 

.8 

2.668 

1.191 

.781 

'.582 

.465 

.386 

.331 

.290 

.257 

.232 

.8 

.9 

2.762 

1.228 

.806 

.600 

.478 

.398 

.341 

.298 

.265 

.238 

.9 

7.0 

2.869 

1.265 

828 

.617 

.492 

.410 

.351 

.307 

.273 

.245 

7.0 

.1 

2.968 

1.302 

.852 

.635 

.507 

.422 

.361 

.316 

.281 

.252 

.1 

.2 

3.060 

1.341 

.877 

.653 

.521 

.434 

.371 

.325 

.289 

.260 

.2 

.3 

3.166 

1.380 

.902 

.672 

.536 

.446 

.382 

.334 

.297 

.267 

.3 

.4 

3.274 

1.419 

.927 

.690 

.551 

.458 

.392 

.343 

.305 

.274 

.4 

7.5 

3.386 

1.459 

.953 

.709 

.566 

.471 

.403 

.352 

.313 

.282 

7.5 

.6 

3.511 

1.500 

.979 

.729 

.581 

.483 

.414 

.362 

.322 

.289 

.6 

.7 

3.620 

1.542 

7.005 

.748 

.596 

.496 

.425 

.372 

.330 

.297 

.7 

.8 

3.742 

1.584 

:.032 

.768 

.612 

.509 

.436 

.381 

.339 

.305 

.8 

.9 

3.869 

1.626 

L .059 

.788 

.628 

.522 

.447 

.391 

.347 

.313 

.9 

8.0 

4.000 

1.670 

1.086 

.808 

.644 

.536 

.459 

.401 

.356 

.321 

8.0 

187 


Slope  Reduction  Tables 


10 

20 

30 

40 

50 

60 

70 

80 

90 

100 

8.1 

4.136 

1.714 

1.114 

.829 

.660 

.549 

.470 

.411 

.365 

.329 

.1 

.2 

4.276 

1.758 

1.142 

.850 

.677 

.563 

.482 

.421 

.374 

.337 

.2 

.3 

4.422 

1.803 

1.171 

.871 

.694 

.577 

.494 

.432 

.384 

.345 

.3 

.4 

4.574 

1.849 

1.200 

.892 

.711 

.591 

.506 

.442 

.393 

.353 

.4 

8.5 

4.732 

1.896 

1.229 

.913 

.728 

.605 

.518 

.453 

.402 

.362 

8.5 

.6 

4.897 

1.943 

1.259 

.935 

.745 

.620 

.530 

.464 

.412 

.371 

.6 

.7 

5.069 

1.991 

1.289 

.958 

.763 

.634 

.543 

.475 

.422 

.379 

.7 

.8 

5 . 250 

2.040 

1.320 

.980 

.780 

.649 

.555 

.486 

.431 

.388 

.8 

.9 

5.440 

2.089 

1.351 

1.003 

.798 

.664 

.568 

.497 

.441 

.397 

.9 

9.0 

5.641 

2.139 

1.382 

1.026 

.817 

.679 

.581 

.508 

.451 

.406 

9.0 

.1 

5.854 

2.190 

1.413 

1.049 

.835 

.694 

.594 

.519 

.461 

.415 

.1 

.2 

6.081 

2.242 

1.445 

1.072 

.854 

.710 

.607 

.531 

.471 

.424 

.2 

.3 

6.324 

2.294 

1.478 

1.096 

.872 

.725 

.621 

.542 

.482 

.433 

.3 

.4 

6.588 

2.347 

1.511 

1.120 

.891 

.741 

.634 

.554 

.492 

.443 

.4 

9.5 

6.877 

2.400 

1.544 

1.144 

.911 

.757 

.648 

.566 

.503 

.452 

9.5 

.6 

7.200 

2.455 

1.577 

1.169 

.930 

.773 

.661 

.578 

.514 

.462 

.6 

.7 

7.569 

2.510 

1.611 

1.194 

.950 

.789 

.675 

.590 

.524 

.472 

.7 

.8 

8.010 

2.565 

1.646 

1.219 

.970 

.806 

.689 

.603 

.535 

.481 

.8 

.9 

8.589 

2.622 

1.681 

1.244 

.990 

.822 

.704 

.615 

.546 

.491 

.9 

10.0 

10.000 

2.679 

1.716 

1.270 

1.010 

.839 

.718j 

.627 

.557 

.501 

10.0 

.1 

1.751 

1.296 

1.031 

.856 

.733 

.640 

.569 

.511 

.1 

.2 

1.787 

1.322 

1.051 

.873 

.747 

.653 

.580 

.521 

.2 

.3 

1.823 

1.349 

1.072 

.891 

.762 

.666 

.591 

.532 

.3 

.4 

1.860 

1.375 

1.094 

.908 

.777 

.679 

.602 

.542 

.4  ! 

10.5 

1.897 

1.402 

1.115 

.926 

.792 

.692 

.614 

.553 

I0..I 

.6 

1.935 

1.430 

1.136 

.944 

.807 

.705 

.626 

.563 

.. 

.7 

1.973 

1.458 

1.158 

.962 

.823 

.719 

.638 

.574 

.7| 

.8 

2.012 

1.486 

1.180 

.980 

.838 

.732 

.650 

.585 

.8 

.9 

2.051 

1.514 

1.202 

.998 

.854 

.746 

.663 

.596 

•9f 

11.0 

2.089 

1.542 

1.225 

1.017 

870 

.760 

.675 

.607 

11.0 1 

.1 

2.129 

1.571 

1.248 

1.036 

.886 

.774 

.687 

.618 

.r 

.2 

2.169 

1.600 

1.271 

1.055 

.902 

.788 

.700 

.629 

.2[ 

.3 

2.209 

1.629 

1.294 

1.074 

.918 

.802 

.712 

.640 

.3\ 

.4 

2.250 

1.659 

1.317 

1.093 

.935 

.816 

.725 

.652 

A 

11.5 

2.292 

1.689 

1.340 

1.112 

.951 

.831 

.738 

.663 

11.5 

.6 

2.333 

1.719 

1.364 

1.132 

.968 

.845 

.751 

.675 

.6 

.7 

2.375 

1.749 

1.388 

1.152 

.985 

,860 

.764 

.687 

.7 

.8 

2.418 

1.780 

1.412 

1.172 

1.002 

.875 

.777 

.699 

.8 

.9 

2.461 

1.811 

1.437 

1.192 

1.019 

.890 

.790 

.711 

.9 

12.0 

2.505 

1.842 

1.461 

1.212 

1.036 

.905 

.804 

.723 

12.0 

188 


Slope  Reduction  Tables 


10 

20 

30 

40 

50 

60 

70 

80 

90 

100 

12.1 

2.548 

1.874 

1 .486 

1.232 

1 .054 

.920 

.817 

.735 

12.1 

.2 

2.593 

1.906 

1.511 

1.253 

1.071 

.936 

.831 

.747 

.2 

.3 

2.637 

1.938 

1.536 

1.274 

1 .089 

.951 

.844 

.759 

.3 

.4 

2.683 

1.971 

1.562 

1.295 

1.107 

.967 

.858 

.772 

.4 

12.5 

2.728 

2.003 

1.588 

1.316 

1.125 

.983 

.872 

.784 

12.5 

.6 

2.774 

2.036 

1.614 

1.338 

1.143 

.999 

.886 

.797 

.6 

.7 

2.821 

2.070 

1.640 

1.359 

1.162 

1.015 

.901 

.810 

.7 

.8 

2.867 

2.103 

1.666 

1.381 

1.180 

1.031 

.915 

.823 

.8 

.9 

2.915 

2.137 

1.693 

1.403 

1.199 

1.047 

.929 

.836 

.9 

13.0 

2.963 

2.171 

1.720 

1.425 

1.218 

1.063 

.944 

.849 

13.0 

.1 

3.011 

2.206 

1.747 

1 .448 

1.237 

1 .080 

.959 

.862 

.1 

.2 

3.060 

2.241 

1.774 

1.470 

1.256 

1 .097 

.973 

.875 

.2 

.3 

3.109 

2.276 

1.801 

1.492 

1 .275 

1.113 

.988 

.888 

.3 

.4 

3.159 

2.311 

1.829 

1.515 

1.294 

1.130 

1.003 

.902 

.4 

13.5 

3.209 

2.347 

1.857 

1.538 

1.314 

1.147 

1.018 

.915 

13.5 

.6 

3.260 

2.383 

1.885 

1.561 

1.334 

1.164 

1.034 

.929 

.6 

.7 

3.311 

2.419 

1 .914 

1.585 

1.354 

1.182 

1 .049 

.943 

.7 

.8 

3.362 

2.456 

1 .942 

1.608 

1.374 

1.199 

1.064 

.957 

.8 

.9 

3.414 

2.493 

1.971 

1 . 632 

1.394 

1.217 

1.080 

.971 

.9 

14.0 

3.467 

2.530 

2.000 

1.656 

1 .414 

1.235 

1 .096 

.985 

14.0 

.1 

3.520 

2.567 

2.029 

1.680 

1.435 

1.252 

1.111 

.999 

.1 

.2 

3.573 

2.605 

2.059 

1.704 

1 .455 

1.270 

1.127 

1.013 

.2 

.3 

3.627 

2.643 

2.089 

1.729 

1.476 

1.288 

1.143 

1.028 

.3 

.4 

3.682 

2.682 

2.119 

1.754 

1.497 

1.307 

1 . 159 

1.042 

.4 

14.5 

3.737 

2.721 

2.149 

1.778 

1.518 

1.325 

1.176 

1.057 

14.5 

.6 

3.792 

2.760 

2.179 

1 .803 

1.539 

1.344 

1.192 

1.072 

.6 

.7 

3.848 

2.799 

2.210 

1 .829 

1.561 

1.362 

1.209 

1.086 

.7 

.8 

3.904 

2.839 

2.241 

1 .854 

1.592 

1.381 

1.225 

1.101 

.8 

.9 

3.961 

2.879 

2.272 

1.879 

1.604 

1 .400 

1.242 

1.116 

.9 

15.0 

4.019 

2.919 

2.303 

1.905 

1.626 

1 .419 

1.259 

1.131 

15.0 

.1 

2.960 

2.335 

1 .931 

1.648 

1 .438 

1 .276 

1.147 

.1 

.2 

3.001 

2.366 

1 .957 

1.670 

1 .457 

1.293 

1.162 

.2 

.3 

3.042 

2.398 

1 .983 

1.692 

1 .477 

1.310 

1.177 

.3 

.4 

3.083 

2.431 

2.010 

1 .715 

1 .496 

1.327 

1.193 

.4 

15.5 

3.124 

2.463 

2.037 

1.738 

1 .516 

1.345 

1.208 

15.5 

.6 

3.167 

2.496 

2.063 

1.760 

1.536 

1.362 

1.224 

.6 

.7 

3.210 

2.529 

2 090 

1.783 

1.556 

1.380 

1.240 

.7 

.8 

* 

3.253 

2.562 

2.117 

1 .806 

1.576 

1.398 

1.256 

.8 

.9 

3.296 

2.596 

2.145 

1.830 

1.596 

1 .416 

1.272 

.9 

16  0 

3.339 

2.629 

2.173 

1.853 

1.616 

1.434 

1.288 

16.0 

189 


Slope  Reduction  Tables 


10 

20 

30 

16.1 

.2 

.3 

.4 

16.5 

.6 

.7 

.8 

.9 

17.0 

.1 

.2 

.3 

.4 

17.5 

.6 

.7 

.8 

.9 

18.0 

.1 

.2 

.3 

.4 

18.5 

.6 

.7 

.8 

.9 

19.0 

.1 

.2 

.3 

.4 

19.5 

.6 

.7 

.8 

.9 

20.0 

40 

50 

3.383 

2.663 

3.427 

2.697 

3.472 

2.732 

3.517 

2.766 

3.562 

2.801 

3.608 

2.836 

3.653 

2.871 

3.699 

2.907 

3.746 

2.943 

3.792 

2.979 

3.839 

3.015 

3.887 

3.051 

3.935 

3.088 

3.982 

3.125 

4.031 

3.162 

4.080 

3.200 

4.129 

3.238 

4.179 

3.276 

4.229 

3.314 

4.279 

3.352 

4.329 

3.391 

4.380 

3.430 

4.432 

3.469 

4.483 

3.509 

4.535 

3.548 

4.588 

3.588 

4.640 

3.628 

4.693 

3.669 

4.747 

3.710 

4.801 

3.751 

4 .855 

3.792 

4.909 

3.833 

4.964 

3.875 

5.019 

3.917 

5.075 

3.959 

5.131 

4.002 

5.187 

4.045 

5.244 

4.088 

5.301 

4.131 

5.359 

4.174 

60 

70* 

80 

90 

100 

2.200 

1.877 

1.637 

1.452 

1.305 

16.1 

2.228 

1.900 

1.657 

1.470 

1.321 

.2 

2.256 

1.924 

1.678 

1.488 

1.337 

.3 

2.285 

1.948 

1.899 

1.507 

1.354 

.4 

2.313 

1.972 

1.720 

1.526 

1.371 

16.5 

2.342 

1.997 

1.741 

1.544 

1.387 

.6 

2.371 

2.021 

1.762 

1.563 

1.404 

.7 

2.400 

2.046 

1.784 

1.582 

1.421 

.8 

2.429 

2.071 

1.805 

1.601 

1.438 

.9 

2.459 

2.096 

1.827 

1.620 

1.456 

17.0 

2.488 

2.121 

1.849 

1.639 

1.473 

.1 

2.518 

2.146 

1.871 

1.659 

1.490 

.2 

2.548 

2.171 

1.893 

1.678 

1.508 

.3 

2.578 

2.197 

1.915 

1.698 

1.525 

.4 

2.609 

2.223 

1.937 

1.718 

1.543 

17.5 

2.639 

2.249 

1.960 

1.738 

1.561 

.6 

2.670 

2.275 

1.983 

1.758 

1.579 

.7 

2.701 

2.301 

2.005 

1.778 

1.597 

• 8 

2.732 

2.327 

2.028 

1.798 

1.615 

• 9 

2.764 

2.354 

2.051 

1.818 

1.633 

18.0 

2.795 

2.381 

2.074 

1.839 

1.652 

.1 

2.827 

2.407 

2.098 

1.859 

1.670 

.2 

2.859 

2.434 

2 . 122 

1.880 

1.689 

.3 

2.891 

2.461 

2.145 

1.901 

1.707 

.4 

2.923 

2.489 

2.168 

1.922 

1.726 

18.5 

2.956 

2.516 

2.192 

1.943 

1.745 

.6 

2.988 

2.544 

2.216 

1.964 

1.764 

.7 

3.021 

2.572 

2.240 

1.985 

1.783 

.8 

3.054 

2.600 

2.265 

2.007 

1.802 

• 9 

3.088 

2.628 

2.289 

2.028 

1.822 

19.0 

3.121 

2 .656 

2.314 

2.050 

1.841 

.1 

3.155 

2.685 

2.338 

2.072 

1.861 

.2 

3.189 

2.713 

2.363 

2.094 

1.880 

.3 

3.223 

2.742 

2.388 

2.116 

1.900 

.4 

3.257 

2.771 

2.413 

2.138 

1.920 

19.5 

3.291 

2.800 

2.438 

2.160 

1.940 

.6 

3.326 

2.829 

2.463* 

2.182 

1.960 

.7 

3.361 

2.858 

2.489 

2.205 

1.980 

.8 

3.396 

2.888 

2.514 

2 .227 

2.000 

.9 

3.431 

2.918 

2.540 

2.250 

2.020 

20.0 

190 


Cut  Constants 


Constants  for  Cut  of  1 deg.  for  Different  Diams. 


Diam. 

A"  PI- 

K"  Pi. 

A"  PI. 

Vs"  PI. 

A"  PI. 

W PI. 

Inches 

Inches 

Inches 

Inches 

Inches 

Inches 

Inches 

20 

.3555 

.3577 

.3599 

.3621 

.3643 

.3665 

21 

.37295 

.37515 

.37735 

.37955 

.38175 

.38395 

22 

.3904 

.3926 

.3948 

.3970 

.3992 

.4014 

23 

.40785 

.41005 

.41225 

.41445 

.41665 

.41885 

24 

.4253 

.4275 

.4297 

.4319 

.4341 

.4363 

25 

.44275 

.44495 

.44715 

.44935 

.45155 

.45375 

26 

.46020 

.46240 

.46460 

.46680 

.46900* 

.47120 

27 

.47765 

.47985 

.48205 

.48425 

.48645 

.48860 

28 

.4951 

.4973 

.4995 

.5017 

.5039 

.5061 

29 

.51255 

.51475 

.51695 

.51915 

.52135 

.52355 

30 

.5300 

.5322 

.5344 

.5366 

.5388 

.5410 

31 

.54745 

.54965 

.55185 

.55405 

.55625 

.55845 

32 

.56490 

.56710 

.56930 

.57150 

.57370 

.57590 

33 

.5824 

.5846 

.5868 

.5890 

.5912 

.5934 

34 

.59985 

.60205 

.60425 

.60645 

.60865 

. .61085 

35 

.61730 

.61950 

.62170 

.62390 

.62610 

.62830 

36 

.6347 

.6369 

.6391 

.6413 

.6435 

.6457 

37 

.65215 

.65435 

.65455 

.65875 

.66095 

.66315 

38 

.66960 

.67180 

.67400 

.67620 

.67840 

.68060 

39 

.6870 

.6892 

.6914 

.6936 

.6958 

.6980 

40 

.70445 

.70665 

.70885 

.71105 

.71325 

.71545 

41 

.72190 

.72415 

.72630 

.72840 

.73070 

.73290 

42 

.7394 

.7416 

.7438 

.7460 

.7482 

.7504 

43 

.75685 

.75905 

.76125 

.76345 

.76565 

.76785 

44 

.77430 

.77650 

.77870 

.78090 

.78310 

.78530 

45 

.7919 

.7941 

.7963 

.7985 

.8007 

.8029 

46 

.80935 

.81155 

.81375 

.81595 

.81815 

.82035 

47 

.82680 

.82900 

.83120 

.83340 

.83560 

.83780 

48 

.8442 

.8464 

.8486 

.8508 

.8530 

.8552 

49 

.86165 

.86385 

.86605 

.86825 

.87045 

.87265 

50 

.87910 

.88130 

.88350 

.88570 

.88790 

.89010 

51 

.8965 

.8982 

.9004 

.9026 

.9050 

.9072 

52 

.91395 

.91565 

.91785 

.92005 

.92245 

.92405 

53 

.93140 

.93310 

.93530 

.93750 

.93990 

.94150 

54 

.9489 

.9511 

.9533 

.9555 

.9577 

.9599 

55 

.96635 

.96855 

.97075 

.97295 

.97315 

.97735 

56 

.98380 

.98600 

.98820 

.99040 

.99260 

.99480 

57 

1.0012 

1.0034 

1 .0056 

1.0078 

1.0100 

1.0122 

58 

1.01865 

1.02085 

1.02305 

1.02525 

1.02745 

1.02965 

59 

1.03610 

1.03830 

1.04050 

1.04270 

1.04490 

1.04710 

60 

1 .0536 

1.0558 

1.0580 

1.0602 

1.0624 

1.0646 

61 

1.07105 

1.07325 

1.07545 

1.07765 

1.07985 

1.08205 

62 

1.08850 

1.09070 

1.09290 

1.09510 

1.09730 

1.09950 

63 

1 . 1059 

1.1081 

1.1103 

1.1125 

1.1147 

1.1169 

64 

1.12335 

1 . 12555 

1.12775 

1.12995 

1.13215 

1 . 13435 

65 

1 . 14080 

1 . 14300 

1 . 14520 

1 . 14740 

1 . 14960 

1.15180 

66 

1.1583 

1 . 1605 

1.1627 

v 1.1649 

1.1671 

1.1693 

67 

1 . 17575 

1.17795 

1.18015 

1.18235 

1 . 18455 

1.18675 

68 

1.19320 

1 . 19540 

1.19760 

1 . 19980 

1.20200 

1.20420 

69 

1.2106 

1.2128 

1.2150 

1.2172 

1.2194 

1.2216 

70 

1.22805 

1.23025 

1.23245 

1.23465 

1.23685 

1.23905 

71 

1.24550 

1.24770 

1.24990 

1.25210 

1.25430 

1.25650 

72 

1 . 2629 

1.2651 

1.2673 

1.2695 

1.2717 

1.2739 

191 


Circumferences  and  Areas  of  Circles 

Diam. 

Circum. 

Area 

Diam. 

Circum. 

Area 

Diam. 

Circum. 

Area 

23. 

30. 

16. 

50.265 

201.06 

A 

72.649 

420.00 

X 

95  033 

718.69 

A 

50.658 

204.22 

X 

73.042 

424 . 56 

A 

95.426 

724 . 64 

X 

51.051 

207.39 

A 

73.435 

429.13 

A 

95.819 

730 . 62 

A 

51.444 

210.60 

A 

73.827 

433.74 

A 

96.211 

736 . 62 

A 

51.836 

213.82 

A 

74.220 

438.36 

A 

96.604 

742 . 64 

A 

52.229 

217.08 

X 

74.613 

443.01 

A 

96.997 

748.69 

A 

52.622 

220.35 

A 

75.006 

447 . 69 

31. 

97.389 

754.77 

7A 

53.014 

223.65 

24. 

75.398 

452.39 

A 

97.782 

760.87 

17. 

53.407 

226.98 

A 

75.791 

457.11 

A 

98.175 

766.99 

Vs 

53.800 

230.33 

X 

76.184 

461.86 

A 

98.567 

773 . 14 

X 

54 . 192 

233.71 

A 

76.576 

466.64 

A 

98.960 

779.31 

Vs 

54 . 585 

237 . 10 

A 

76.969 

471.44 

A 

99.353 

785.51 

A 

54.978 

240 . 53 

A 

77.362 

476.26 

A 

99.746 

791.73 

A 

55.371 

243.98 

A 

77.754 

481.11 

A 

100.138 

797.98 

A 

55.763 

247.45 

A 

78 . 147 

485.98 

32. 

100.531 

804 . 25 

A 

56.156 

250.95 

25. 

78.540 

490.87 

A 

100.924 

810.54 

18. 

56.549 

254.47 

A 

78.933 

495.79 

A 

101.316 

816.86 

• Vs 

56.941 

258.02 

X 

79.325 

500.74 

A 

101.709 

823.21 

A 

57.334 

261.59 

A 

79.718 

505.71 

A 

102 . 102 

829 . 58 

A 

57.727 

265.18 

A 

80.111 

510.71 

A 

102.494 

835.97 

A 

58.119 

268.80 

A 

80 . 503 

515.72 

A 

102.887 

842.39 

Ai 

58.512 

272.45 

A 

80.896 

520.77 

A 

103.280 

848.83 

A 

58.905 

276.12 

A 

81.289 

525.84 

33. 

103.673 

855.30 

A 

59 . 298 

279.81 

26. 

81.681 

530.93 

3^ 

104.065 

861.79 

19. 

59.690 

283.53 

A 

82.074 

536.05 

X 

104.458 

868.31 

A 

60.083 

287.27 

X 

82.467 

541.19 

A 

104.851 

874 . 85 

X 

60.476 

291.04 

A 

82 . 860 

546.35 

A 

105.243 

881.41 

A 

60.868 

294.83 

A 

83 . 252 

551.55 

A 

105.636 

888.00 

A 

61.261 

298.65 

A 

83 . 645 

556.76 

A 

106.029 

894 . 62 

x 

61.654 

302.49 

A 

84.038 

562.00 

A 

106.421 

901.26 

62.046 

306.35 

A 

84.430 

567.27 

34. 

106.814 

907.92 

A 

62.439 

310.24 

27. 

84.823 

572 . 56 

3^ 

107.207 

914.61 

20. 

62.832 

314.16 

A 

85.216 

577 . 87 

A 

107.600 

921.32 

A 

63.225 

318.10 

X 

85.608 

583.21 

A 

107.992 

928.06 

X 

63.617 

322.06 

A 

86.001 

588 . 57 

A 

108.385 

934.82 

A 

64.010 

326.05 

A 

86 . 394 

593.96 

A 

108.778 

941.61 

A 

64.403 

330.06 

A 

86.786 

599 . 37 

A 

109 . 170 

948.42 

A 

64.795 

334 . 10 

A 

87 . 179 

604.81 

A 

109.563 

955.25 

A 

65 . 188 

338.16 

A 

87.572 

610.27 

35. 

109.956 

962.11 

A 

65.581 

342.25 

28. 

87.965 

615.75 

A 

110.348 

969.00 

21. 

65.973 

346.36 

* A 

88.357 

621.26 

A 

110.741 

975.91 

A 

66.366 

350 . 50 

A 

88.750 

626 . 80 

A 

111.134 

982.84 

X 

• 66.759 

354 . 66 

A 

89 . 143 

632.36 

A 

111.527 

989.80 

A 

67.152 

358.84 

A 

89 . 535 

637.94 

A 

111.919 

996.78 

A 

67.544 

363.05 

A 

89.928 

643.55 

A 

112.312 

1003.8 

A 

67.937 

367.28 

A 

90.321 

649.18 

A 

112.705 

1010.8 

A 

68.330 

371.54 

A 

90.713 

654 . 84 

36. 

113.097 

1017.9 

A 

68.722 

375.83 

29. 

91.106 

660 . 52 

A 

113.490 

1025.0 

22. 

69.115 

380 . 13 

A 

91.499 

666.23 

A 

113.883 

1032.1 

A 

69 . 508 

384.46 

A 

91.892 

671.96 

A 

114.275 

1039  2 

X 

69.900 

388.82 

A 

92.284 

677.71 

A 

114.668 

1046.3 

A 

70 . 293 

393.20 

A 

92 . 677 

683.49 

A 

115.061 

1053.5 

A 

70.686 

397.61 

A 

93.070 

689.30 

A 

115.454 

1060.7 

A 

71.079 

402.04 

A 

93.462 

695.13 

A 

115.846 

1068.0 

X 

71.471 

406.49 

A 

93.855 

700.98 

37. 

116.239 

1075.2 

A 

71.864 

410.97 

30. 

94 . 248 

706.86 

A 

116.632 

1082.5 

23. 

72.257 

415.48 

A 

94 . 640 

712.76 

A 

117.024 

1089.8 

192 


Circumferences  and  Areas  of  Circles — 

-Continued 

Diam. 

Circum. 

Area 

Diam. 

Circum. 

Area 

Diam. 

Circum. 

Area 

37. 

44. 

51. 

H 

117.417 

1097 . 1 

139.801 

1555.3 

*A- 

162.185 

2093.2 

lA 

117.810 

1104.5 

Vs 

140 . 194 

1564.0 

X 

162.577 

2103.3 

Vs 

118.202 

1111.8 

X 

140.586 

1572.8 

Vs 

162.970 

2113.5 

X 

118.596 

1119.2 

Vs 

140.979 

1581.6 

52. 

163.363 

2123.7 

% 

118.988 

1126.7 

45. 

141 .372 

1590.4 

Vs 

163.756 

2133.9 

38. 

119.381 

1134.1 

Vs 

141.764 

1599.3 

X 

164.148 

2144.2 

Vs 

119.773 

1141.6 

X 

142.157 

1608.2 

Vs 

164.541 

2154.5 

X 

120.166 

1149.1 

Vs 

142.550 

1617.0 

V. 

164.934 

2164.8 

Vs 

120.559 

1156.6 

V2 

142.942 

1626.0 

Vs 

165.326 

2175.1 

H 

120.951 

1164.2 

Vs 

143.335 

1634.9 

X 

165.719 

2185.4 

Vs 

121.344 

1171.7 

X 

143.728 

1643.9 

Vs 

166.112 

2195.8 

X 

121.737 

1179.3 

Vs 

144.121 

1652.9 

53. 

166.504 

2206.2 

Vs 

122.129 

1186.9 

46. 

144.513 

1661.9 

Vs 

166.897 

2216.6 

39. 

122.522 

1194.6 

Vs 

144.906 

1670.9 

X 

167.290 

2227.0 

3^ 

122.915 

1202.3 

X 

145.299 

1680.0 

Vs 

167.683 

2237.5 

X 

123.308 

1210.6 

Vs 

145.691 

1689.1 

V. 

168.075 

2248.0 

Vs 

123.700 

1217.7 

V2 

146.084 

1698.2 

Vs 

168.468 

2258.5 

H 

124.093 

1225.4 

Vs 

146.477 

1707.4 

Vi 

168.861 

2269 . 1 

Vs 

124.486 

1233.2 

X 

146.869 

1716.5 

Vs 

169.253 

2279.6 

X 

124.878 

1241 .0 

Vs 

147.262 

1725.7 

54. 

169.646 

2290.2 

Vs 

125.271 

1248.8 

47. 

147.655 

1734.9 

Vs 

170.039 

2300.8 

40. 

125.664 

1256.6 

■ Vs  ' 

148.048 

1744.2 

X 

170.431 

2311.5 

Vs 

126.056 

1264.5 

X 

148.440 

1753.5 

Vs 

170.824 

2322 . 1 

X 

126.449 

1272.4 

Vs 

148.833 

1762.7 

V, 

171 .217 

2332.8 

Vs 

126.842 

1280.3 

Vi 

149.226 

1772.1 

Vs 

171.609 

2343.5 

V* 

127.235 

1288.2 

Vs 

149.618 

1781.4 

Vi 

172.002 

2354.3 

Vs 

127.627 

1296.2 

Vi 

150.011 

1790.8 

Vs 

172.395 

2365.0 

Vi 

128.020 

1304.2 

Vs 

150.404 

1800 . 1 

55. 

172.788 

2375.8 

Vs 

128.413 

1312.2 

48. 

150.796 

1809.6 

Vs 

173.180 

2386.6 

41. 

128.805 

1320.3 

Vs 

151.189 

1819.0 

X 

173.573 

2397.5 

Vs 

129 . 198 

1328.3 

X 

151.582 

1828.5 

Vs 

173.966 

2408.3 

X 

129.591 

1336.4 

Vs 

151.975 

1837.9 

V2 

174.358 

2419.2 

Vs 

129.983 

1344.5 

V2 

152.367 

1847.5 

Vs 

174.751 

2430 . 1 

Vi 

130.376 

1352.7 

Vs 

152.760 

1857.0 

X 

175.144 

2441 . 1 

Vs 

130.769 

1360.8 

% 

153.153 

1866.5 

Vs 

175.536 

2452.0 

X 

131.161 

1369.0 

Vs 

153.545 

1876.1 

56. 

175.929 

2463.0 

Vs 

131.554 

1377.2 

49. 

153.938 

1885.7 

Vs 

176.322 

2474.0 

42. 

131.947 

1385.4 

Vs 

154.331 

1895.4 

X 

176.715 

2485.0 

Vs 

132.340 

1393.7 

X 

154.723 

1905.0 

Vs 

177.107 

2496.1 

X 

132.732 

1402.0 

Vs 

155.116 

1914.7 

V2 

177 . 500 

2507.2 

Vs 

133 . 125 

1410.3 

V2 

155.509 

1924.4 

Vs 

177.893 

2518.3 

X 

133.518 

1418.6 

Vs 

155.902 

1934.2 

X 

178.285 

2529.4 

Vs 

133.910 

1427.0 

Vi 

156.294 

1943.9 

Vs 

178.678 

2540.6 

X 

134.303 

1435.4 

Vs 

156.687 

1953.7 

57. 

179.071 

2551.8 

Vs 

134.696 

1443.8 

50. 

157.080 

1963.5 

Vs 

179.463 

2563.0 

43. 

135.088 

1452.2 

157.472 

1973 . 3 

X 

179.856 

2574.2 

Vs 

135.481 

1460.7 

157.865 

1983.2 

Vs 

180.249 

2585.4 

X 

135.874 

1469 . 1 

3/6 

158.258 

1993.1 

V2 

180.642 

2596.7 

Vs 

136.267 

1477.6 

158.650 

2003.0 

Vs 

181.034 

2608.0 

V2 

136.659 

1486.2 

A 

159.043 

2012.9 

X 

181.427 

2619.4 

Vs 

137.052 

1494.7 

X 

159.436 

2022.8 

Vs 

181.820 

2630.7 

X 

137.445 

1503.3 

Vs 

159.829 

2032.8 

58. 

182.212 

2642 . 1 

Vs 

137.837 

1511.9 

51. 

160.221 

2042.8 

Vs 

182.605 

2653.5 

44. 

138.230 

1520.5 

Vs 

160.614 

2052.8 

X 

182.998 

2664.9 

Vs. 

138.623 

1529.2 

X 

161.007 

2062.9 

Vs 

183-390 

2676.4 

X 

139.015 

1537.9 

Vs 

161.399 

2073.0 

Vi 

183.783 

2687.8 

Vs 

139.408 

1546.6 

V2 

161.792 

2083 . 1 

Vs 

184.176 

2699.3 

193 


Circumferences  and  Areas  of  Circles — Continued 


Diam 

. Circum. 

Area 

Diam. 

Circum. 

Area 

Diam. 

Circum. 

Area 

5 8.X 

184.569 

2710.9 

65.J4 

206.952 

3408.2 

73. 

229.336 

4185.4 

a 

184.961 

2722.4 

66. 

207.345 

3421.2 

Vs 

229.729 

4199.7 

59. 

185.354 

2734.0 

Vs 

207.738 

3434.2 

A 

230.122 

4214.1 

Vs 

185.747 

2745.6 

A 

208.131 

3447.2 

Vs 

230.514 

4228.5 

A 

186.139 

2757.2 

X 

208.523 

3460.2 

A 

230.907 

4242.9 

Vs 

186.532 

2768.8 

A 

208.916 

3473.2 

Vs 

231.300 

4257.4 

A 

186.925 

2780.5 

Vs 

209.309 

3486.3 

X 

231.692 

4271.8 

Vs 

187.317 

2792.2 

X 

209.701 

3499.4 

Vs 

232.085 

4286.3 

X 

187.710 

2803.9 

Vs 

210.094 

3512.5 

74. 

232.478 

4300.8 

% 

188.103 

2815.7 

67. 

210.487 

3525.7 

Vs 

232.871 

4315.4 

60. 

188.496 

2827.4 

A 

210.879 

3538.8 

A 

233.263 

4329.9 

Vs 

188.888 

2839.2 

X 

211.272 

3552.0 

Vs 

233.656 

4344.5 

A 

189.281 

2851.0 

Vs 

211.665 

3565.2 

A 

234.049 

4359.2 

Vs 

189.674 

2862.9 

A 

212.058 

3578.5 

Vs 

234.441 

4373.8 

A 

190.066 

2874.8 

Vs 

212.450 

3591.7 

X 

234.834 

4388.5 

Vs 

X 

190.459 

2886 . 6 

V 

212.843 

3605.0 

Vs 

235.227 

4403 . 1 

190.852 

2898.6 

Vs 

213.236 

3618.3 

75. 

235.619 

4417.9 

% 

191.244 

2910.5 

68. 

213.628 

3631.7 

Vs 

236.012 

4432.6 

61. 

191.637 

2922.5 

Vs 

214.021 

3645.0 

A 

236.405 

4447.4 

Vs 

192.030 

2934.5 

X 

214.414 

3658.4 

Vs 

236.798 

4462.2 

A 

192.423 

2946.5 

Vs 

214.806 

3671.8 

A 

237 . 190 

4477.0 

192.815 

2958.5 

A 

215.199 

3685.3 

Vs 

237.583 

4491.8 

H 

193.208 

2970.6 

Vs 

215.592 

3698.7 

X 

237.976 

4506.7 

193.601 

2982.7 

X 

215.984 

3712.2 

Vs 

238.368 

4521.5 

% 

193.993 

2994.8 

Vs 

216.377 

3725.7 

76. 

238.761 

4536.5 

7A 

194.386 

3006.9 

69. 

216.770 

3739.3 

Vs 

239.154 

4551.4 

62. 

194.779 

3019.1 

Vs 

217.163 

3752.8 

A 

239.546 

4566.4 

3^ 

195.171 

3031.3 

. X 

217.555 

3766.4 

Vs 

239.939 

4581.3 

M 

195.564 

3043.5 

Vs 

217.948 

3780.0 

A 

240.332 

4596.3 

% 

195.957 

3055.7 

A 

218.341 

3793.7 

Vs 

240.725 

4611.4 

A 

196.350 

3068  0 

Vs 

X 

218.733 

3807.3 

X 

241.117 

4626.4 

% 

196.742 

3080.3 

219.126 

3821.0 

Vs 

241.510 

4641.5 

X 

197.135 

3092.6 

Vs 

219.519 

3834.7 

77. 

241.903 

4656.6 

% 

197.528 

3104.9 

70. 

219.911 

3848.5 

Vs 

242.295 

4671.8 

63. 

197.920 

3117.2 

Vs 

220.304 

3862.2 

A 

242.688 

4686.9 

3^ 

198.313 

3129.6 

X 

220.697 

3876.0 

Vs 

243.081 

4702.1 

198.706 

3142.0 

Vs 

221.090 

3889.8 

M 

243.473 

4717.3 

% 

199.098 

3154.5 

A 

221.482 

3903.6 

Vs 

243.866 

4732.5 

3^ 

199.491 

3166.9 

Vs 

221.875 

3917.5 

X 

244.259 

4747.8 

199.884 

3179.4 

x 

222.268 

3931.4 

Vs 

244.652 

4763 . 1 

% 

200.277 

3191.9 

Vs 

222.660 

3945.3 

78. 

245.044 

4778.4 

% 

200.669 

3204.4 

71. 

223.053 

3959.2 

Vs 

245.437 

4793.7 

64. 

201.062 

3217.0 

Vs 

223.446 

3973.1 

A 

245.830 

4809.0 

M 

201.455 

3229.6 

X 

223.838 

3987.1 

Vs 

246.222 

4824.4 

A 

201.847 

3242.2 

Vs 

224.231 

4001.1 

A 

246.615 

4839.8 

Vs 

202.240 

3254.8 

A 

224.624 

4015.2 

Vs 

247.008 

4855.2 

A 

202.633 

3267.5 

Vs 

225.017 

4029.2 

X 

247.400 

4870.7 

Vs 

203.025 

3280.1 

% 

225.409 

4043.3 

Vs 

247.793 

4886.2 

X 

203.418 

3292.8 

Vs 

225.802 

4057.4 

79. 

248.186 

4901.7 

Vs 

203.811 

3305.6 

72. 

226.195 

4071.5 

Vs 

248 . 579 

4917.2 

65. 

204.204 

3318.3 

Vs 

226.587 

4085.7 

A 

248.971 

4932.7 

A 

204.596 

3331.1 

A 

226.980 

4099.8 

Vs 

249.364 

4948.3 

A 

204.989 

3343.9 

Vs 

227.373 

4114.0 

A 

249.757 

4963.9 

Vs 

205.382 

3356.7 

A 

227.765 

4128.2 

Vs 

250 . 149 

4979.5 

A 

205.774 

3369.6 

Vs 

228.158 

4142.5 

X 

250.542 

4995.2 

Vs 

206.167 

3382.4 

X 

228.551 

4156.8 

Vs 

250.935 

5010.9 

X 

206.560 

3395.3 

i 

Vs 

i 

228.944 

4171.1 

80. 

251.327 

5026.5 

194 


Circumferences  and  Areas  of  Circles — Continued 


Diam. 

Circum. 

Area 

Diam. 

Circum. 

Area 

Diam. 

Circum. 

Area 

80. 

87. 

94. 

A 

251.720 

5042.3 

K 

274.104 

5978.9 

As 

296 . 488 

6995.3 

A 

252.113 

5058.0 

As 

274.497 

5996.0 

A 

296.881 

7013.4 

A 

252 . 506 

•f)73 . 8 

A 

274.889 

6013.2 

A 

297.273 

7032.5 

A 

252 . 898 

5089 . 6 

A 

275.282 

6030.4 

A 

297.666 

7051.0 

A 

253.291 

5105.4 

A 

275.675 

6047.6 

A 

298.059 

7069.6 

A 

253.684 

5121.2 

A 

276.067 

6064.9 

95. 

298.451 

7088.2 

Vs 

254.076 

5137.1 

88. 

276.460 

6082.1 

As 

298.844 

7106.9 

81. 

254.469 

5153.0 

As 

276.853 

6099.4 

A 

299 . 237 

7125.6 

A 

254.862 

5168.9 

A 

277.246 

6116.7 

A ■ 

299.629 

7144.3 

A 

255.254 

5184.9 

A 

277.638 

6134.1 

A. 

300.022 

7163.0 

A 

255.647 

5200.8 

A 

278.031 

6151.4 

Vs 

300.415 

7181.8 

A. 

256.040 

5216.8 

A 

278.424 

6168.8 

A 

300.807 

7200.6 

A 

256.433 

5232.8 

A 

278.816 

6186.2 

A 

301.200 

7219.4 

A 

256.825 

5248.9 

A 

279.209 

6203.7 

96. 

301.593 

7238.2 

A 

257.218 

5264.9 

89. 

279.602 

6221.1 

As 

301.986 

7257.1 

82 

257.611 

5281.0 

As 

279.994 

6238.6 

A, 

302.378 

7276.0 

A 

258.003 

5297 . 1 

A 

280.387 

6256 . 1 

A 

302.771 

7294.9 

A 

258.396 

5313.3 

A 

280.780 

6273.7 

A. 

303.164 

7313.8 

A 

258.789 

5329.4 

A. 

281.173 

6291.2 

A 

303.556 

7332.8 

A 

259 . 181 

5345.6 

Vs 

281.565 

6308.8 

A 

303.949 

7351.8 

A 

259.574 

5361.8 

A 

281.958 

6326.4 

A 

304.342 

7370.8 

A 

259.967 

5378 . 1 

As 

282.351 

6344.1 

97. 

304.734 

7389.8 

A 

260.359 

5394.3 

90. 

282.743 

6361.7 

As 

305 . 127 

7408.9 

83. 

260.752 

5410.6 

As 

283.136 

6379.4 

A 

305.520 

7428.0 

A 

261.145 

5426.9 

A 

283.529 

6397.1 

A 

305.913 

7447.1 

A 

261.538 

5443.3 

A 

283.921 

6414.9 

A 

306.305 

7466.2 

A 

261.930 

5459.6 

A 

284.314 

6432.6 

A 

306.698 

7485.3 

A 

262.323 

5476.0 

A 

284.707 

6450.4 

A 

307.091 

7504.5 

A 

262.716 

5492.4 

A 

285.100 

6468.2 

A 

307.483 

7523.7 

A 

263.108 

5508.8 

A 

285.492 

6486.0 

98. 

307.876 

7543.0 

A 

263.501 

5525.3 

91. 

285 . 885 

6503.9 

As 

308.269 

7562.2 

84. 

263.894 

5541.8 

A 

286.278 

6521.8 

A 

308.661 

7581.5 

A 

264.286 

5558.3 

A 

286.670 

6539.7 

A 

309.054 

7600.8 

A 

264.679 

5574.8 

A 

287.063 

6567.6 

A 

309.447 

7620.1 

A 

265.072 

5591.4 

A 

287.456 

6575.5 

A 

309.840 

7639.5 

A 

265.465 

5607.9 

A 

287.848 

6593.5 

A 

310.232 

7658.9 

A 

265.857 

5624.5 

A 

288.241 

6611.5 

A 

310.625 

7678.3 

A 

266.250 

5641.2 

A 

288.634 

6629.6 

99. 

311.018 

7697.7 

A 

266.643 

5657.8 

92. 

289.027 

6647.6 

A 

311.410 

7717.1 

85. 

267.035 

5674.5 

A 

289.419 

6665.7 

A 

311.803 

7736.6 

A 

267.428 

5691.2 

A 

289.812 

6683.8 

A 

312.196 

7756.1 

A 

267.821 

5707.9 

A 

290.205 

6701.9 

A 

312.588 

7775.6 

A 

•268.213 

5724.7 

A 

290.597 

6720 . 1 

A 

312.981 

7795.2 

A 

268.606 

5741.5 

A 

290.990 

6738.2 

A 

313.374 

7814.8 

A 

268.999 

5758.3 

A 

291.383 

6756.4 

A 

313.767 

7834.4 

A 

269.392 

5775.1 

A 

291.775 

6774.7 

100. 

314.159 

7854.0 

A 

269.784 

5791.9 

93. 

292.168 

6792.9 

86. 

270 . 177 

5808.8 

As 

292.561 

6811.2 

A 

270.570 

5825.7 

A 

292.954 

6829.5 

A 

270.962 

5842.6 

Vs 

293.346 

6847.8 

A 

271.355 

5859.6 

A. 

293.739 

6866.1 

A 

271.748 

5876.5 

Vs 

294 . 132 

6884.5 

A 

272 . 140 

5893.5 

A 

294.524 

6902.9 

A 

272.533 

5910.6 

A 

294.917 

6921.3 

A 

272.926 

5927.6 

94. 

295.310 

6939.8 

87. 

273.319 

5944.7 

As 

295.702 

6958.2 

A 

273.711 

5961.8 

A 

296.095 

6976.7 

195 


196 


Lengths  of  Circular  Arcs 


Lengths  of  the  Arcs  of  Circles  to  the  Radius  1. 


Degrees 


0 i0. 00000 

1 0.01745 

2 0.03490 

3 i0. 05235 


00000  60 
32925!  61 
65850!  62 
98776  63 
31701  64 

64626!  65 
97551  66 
30476!  67 
63402  ! 68 
96327  69 


Minutes 


Seconds 


0.06981 
0.08726 
0.10471 
0.12217 
_ 0.13962 
9 0.15707 


1.04719  75512  120 
1.06465  08437  121 
1.08210  41362  122 
1.09955  74288  123 
1.11701  07213  124 
1.13446  40138  125 
1.15191  73063  126 
1.16937  05988  127 
1.18682  38914  128 
1.20427  71839  129 


2.09439 

2.11184 

2.12930 

2.14675 

2.16420 

2.18166 

2.19911 

2.21656 

2.23402 

2.25147 


51024 

83949 

16874 

49800 

82725 

15650 

48575 

81500 

14426 

47351 


0.00000 

0.00029 

0.00058 

0.00087 

0.00116 

0.00145 

0.00174 

0.00203 

0.00232 

0.00261 


00000 

08882 

17764 

26646 

35528 

44410 

53293 

62175 

71057 

79939 


o.ooooo  ooooo 

0.00000  48481 
0.00000  96963 
0.00001  45444 
0.00001  93925 
0.00002  42407 
0.00002  90888 
0.00003  39370 
0.00003  87851 
0.00004  36332 


10  0.17453  : 


1 .22173  04764  130 


2.26892  80276  10 


0.00290  88821 


0.00004  84814 


11  0.19198 

12  0.20943 

13  0.22689 


0.24434 
0*.  26179 
0.27925 
0.29670 
0.31415 
0 33161 


62177 

95102 

28028 

60953 

93878 

26803! 

59728! 

92654 

25579! 


1.23918 

1.25663 

27409 

29154 

30899 

1.32645 

34390 

1.36135 

1.37881 


376891131 


70614 
03540 
36465 
69390 
02315 
35240 
68166  138 
010911139 


2.28638 

2.30383 

2.32128 

2.33874 

2.35619 

2.37364 

2.39110 

2.40855 

2.42600 


13201 


11 


46126  12 


79052 
11977 
44902 
77827 
10752  17 
43678  18 
76603 19 


0.00319 
0 . 00349 
0.00378 
0.00407 
0.00436 
0.00465 
0.00494 
0.00523  59878 
0.00552 


97703 

06585 

15467 

24349 

33231 

42113 


0.00005 
0.00005 
0.00006 
0 . 00006 
0.00007 
0.00007 
0 . 00008 
0 . 00008 
0.00009 


33295 

81776 

30258 

78739 

27221 

75702 

24183 

72665 

21146 


20 


0.34906  585041  80 


1.39626  34016  140 


2.44346  09528 


20 


0.00581  77642 


20 


0.00009  69627 


36651  914291 
3839?  24354 
40142  57280 
41887  90205 
43633  23130 
45378  56055j 
47123  88980 
48869  21906 
50614  54831 


1.41371 

1.43116 

1.44862 

1.46607 

1.48352 

1.50098 

1.51843 

1.53588 

.55334 


669411141 
99866  142 
32792!  143 
65717  |144 
986421145 
315671146 
64492 '147 
97418 1148 
303431149 


2.46091 
2.47836 
2.49582 
2.51328 
2.53072 
2.54818 
2.56563 
2.58308 
2 . 60054 


42453 

75378 

08304 

41229 

74154 

07079 

40004 

72930 

05855 


0.00610 

0.00639 

0.00669 

0.00698 

0.00727 

0.00756 

0.00785 

0.00814 

0.00843 


86524  21 
95406  22 
04288  23 
1317024 
22052 
30934  26 
3981627 
48698  28 
5758129 


0.00010 

0.00010 

0.00011 

0.00011 

0.00012 

0.00012 

0.00013 

0.00013 

0.00014 


18109 

66590 

15071 

63553 

12034 

60516 

08997 

57478 

05960 


30 


0.52359  87756  90 


1.57079  63268  150 


2.61799  38780 


0.00872  66463  30 


0.00014  54441 


31 

32 

33 

34  0 

35  ;0 

36  10 

37  ;0 

38  0 

39  0 


54105 

55850 

57595 

59341 

61086 

62831 

64577 

66322 

68067 


20681  91 
53606  92 
86532  93 
19457  94 
52382  95 
85307!  96 
18232  ! 97 
51158!  98 
84083  99 


1 . 58824 
1.60570 
1.62315 
1 . 64060 
1.65806 
1.67551 
1.69296 
1.71042 
1.72787 


96193  |151 
29118  152 
62044  153 
94969[j  154 
27894!  155 
608191156 
93744  157 
26670  158 
59595!  159 


2.63544 
2.65290 
2.67035 
2.68780 
2.70526 
2.72271 
2.74016 
2.75762 
2.77507  3510739 


04630 

37556 

70481 

03406 

36331 

69256 

02182 


0.00901 
0.00930 
0.00959 
0.00989 
0.01018 
0.01047 
0.01076  28637 
0.01105  3751938 
0.01134  4640139 


01991 

10873 


0.00015 

0.00015 

0.00015 

0.00016 

0.00016 

0.00017 

0.00017 

0.00018 

0.00018 


02922 

51404 

99885 

48367 

96848 

45329 

93811 

42292 

90773 


40 


0.69813  17008  100 


1.74532  925201 


160 


2.79252  68032 


40 


0.01163  55283 


40 


0.00019  39255 


49933)101 
82858  102 
15784  103 
48709*!  104 
816341105 
14559  106 
47484,107 
80410!!l08 
13335109 

, \t — 

0.87266  462601110 


71558 

73303 

75049 

76794 

78539 

80285 

82030 

83775 

85521 


1.76278 
1 . 78023 
1.79768 
1.81514 
1.83259 
1 . 85004 
1.86750 
1.88495 
1.90240 


25445 

58370 

91296 

24221 

57146! 

90071 

22996! 

55922| 

88847* 


2.80998 
2.82743 
2 . 84488 
2.86233 
2.87979 
2.89724 
2.91469 
2.93215 
2.94960 


00957 

33882 


66808  43 
99733  44 
32658  45 
65583  46 
98508  47 
31434  48 
64359  49 


0.01192 

0.01221 

0.01250 

0.01279 

0.01308 

0.01338 

0.01367 

0.01396 

0.01425 


64166  < 
73048  ^ 
81930 { 
90812 
99694  < 
08576  ^ 
17458  47 
26340  48 
35222  49 


0.00019 

0.00020 

0.00020 

0.00021 

0.00021 

0.00022 

0.00022 

0.00023 

0.00023 


87736 

36217 

84699 

33180 

81662 

30143 

'78624 

27106 

75587 


50 


1.91986  21772  170 


2.96705  97284 


50 


0.01454  44104 


50 


0.00024  24068 


0.89011 

0.90757 

0.92502 

0.94247 

0.95993 

0.97738 

0.99483 

1.01229 

1.02974 


79185!  Ill 
12110  112 
45036  113 
77961  114 
10886  115 
43811  116 
76736117 
096621118 
42587119 


1.93731 

1.95476 

1.97222 

1.98967 

2.00712 

2.02458 

2.04203 

2.05948 

2.07694 


54697*  171 
87622  172 
20548  173 
53473  174 
86398  175 
19323  176 
52248)177 
85174  178 
18099  179 


2.98451 

3.00196 

3.01941 

3.03687 

3.05432 

3.07177 

3.08923 

3.10668 

3.12413 


30209 
63134 
96060 
28985 
6191055 
94835  56 
27760  57 
60685  58 
9361159 


0.01483 

0.01512 

0.01541 

0.01570 

0.01599 

0.01628 

0.01658 

0.01687 

0.01716 


52986 

61869 

70751 

79633 

88515 

97397 

06279 

15161 


24043  59 


0.00024 

0.00025 

0.00025 

0.00026 

0.00026 

0.00027 

0.00027 

0.00028 

0.00028 


72550 

21031 

69513 

17994 

66475 

14958 

63437 

11919 

60401 


60  1 .04719  75512*120  2.09439  51024180 


3.14159  2653660  0.01745  3292560  0.00029  08882 


197 


1 

Length 

Corrections 

LENGTH  CORRECTION  FOR  100.00  FT. 

FROM 

0 TO  5.9  RISE 

Rise 

Angle 

Cor. 

Rise 

Angle 

Cor. 

Rise 

Angle 

Cor. 

.0 

2.0 

l°-09' 

.02014 

4.0 

2°-18' 

.08056 

.1 

2.1 

1°-13' 

.02255 

4.1 

2°-21' 

.08410 

.2 

2.2 

1°-16' 

.02444 

4.2 

2°-25' 

.08894 

.3 

0°-ll' 

.00051 

2.3 

l°-20' 

.02708 

4.3 

2°-28' 

.09266 

.4 

0°-14' 

.00083 

2.4 

l°-23' 

.02914 

4.4 

2°-32' 

.09773 

.5 

0°-18' 

.00137 

2.5 

l°-26' 

.03129 

4.5 

2°-35' 

.10163 

.6 

0°-21' 

.00187 

2.6 

l°-30' 

.03427 

4.6 

2°-39' 

. 10694 

.7 

0°-25' 

.00264 

2.7 

l°-33' 

.03659 

4.7 

2°-42' 

.11101 

.8 

0°-28' 

.00332 

2.8 

l°-37' 

.03980 

4.8 

2°-46' 

.11656 

.9 

0°-31' 

.00407 

2.9 

l°-40' 

.04231 

4.9 

2°-49' 

.12081 

1.0 

0°-35' 

.00518 

3.0 

l°-44' 

.04576 

5.0 

2°-52' 

.12514 

1.1 

0°-38' 

.00611 

3.1 

l°-47' 

.04843 

5.1 

2°-56' 

.13102 

1.2 

0°-42' 

.00746 

3.2 

l°-50' 

.05119 

5.2 

2°-59' 

.13553 

1.3 

0°-45' 

.00857 

3.3 

l°-54' 

.05498 

5.3 

3°-03' 

.14165 

1.4 

0°-49' 

.01016 

3.4 

l°-57' 

.05791 

5.4 

3°-06' 

.14633 

1.5 

0°-52' 

.01144 

3.5 

2°-01' 

.06194 

5.5 

3°-09' 

.15109 

1.6 

0°-55' 

.01280 

3.6 

2°-04' 

.06505 

5.6 

3°-12' 

.15592 

1.7 

0°-59' 

.01473 

3.7 

2°-08' 

.06931 

5.7 

3°-16' 

.16249 

1.8 

l°-02' 

.01626 

3.8 

2°-ll' 

.07260 

5.8 

3°-20' 

.16918 

1.9 

l°-06' 

.01843 

3.9 

2°-15' 

.07716 

5.9 

3°-23' 

.17430 

FROM  6.0  TO  11.9  RISE 

Rise 

Angle 

Cor. 

Rise 

Angle 

Cor. 

Rise 

Angle 

Cor. 

6.0 

3°-27' 

.18123 

8.0 

4°-35' 

.32085 

10.0 

5°-43' 

.49982 

6.1 

3°-30' 

.18652 

8.1 

4°-38' 

.32786 

10.1 

5°-47' 

.51159 

6.2 

3°-33' 

.19189 

8.2 

4°-42' 

.33739 

10.2 

5°-50' 

.52052 

6.3 

3°-36' 

.19733 

8.3 

4°-45' 

.34463 

10.3 

5°-53' 

.52952 

6.4 

3°-40' 

.20470 

8.4 

4°-49' 

.35442 

10.4 

5°-57' 

.54165 

6.5 

3°-44' 

.21221 

8.5 

4°-52' 

.36182 

10.5 

6°-00' 

.55083 

6.6 

3°-47' 

.21793 

8.6 

4°-55' 

.36932 

10.6 

6°-04' 

.56319 

6.7 

3°-50' 

.22373 

8.7 

4°-59' 

.37943 

10.7 

6°-07' 

.57256 

6.8 

3°-54' 

.23157 

8.8 

5°-02' 

.38711 

10.8 

6°-10' 

.58201 

6.9 

3°-57' 

.23812 

8.9 

5°-06' 

.39746 

10.9 

6°-14' 

.59472 

7.0 

4°-01' 

.24563 

9.0 

5°-09' 

.40532 

11.0 

6°-17' 

.60435 

7.1 

4°-04' 

.25178 

9.1 

5°-12' 

.41325 

11.1 

6°-21' 

.61731 

7.2 

4°-07' 

.25801 

9.2 

5°-16' 

.42396 

11.2 

6°-24' 

.62712 

7.3 

4°-ll' 

.26643 

9.3 

5°-19' 

.43207 

11.3 

6°-27' 

.63700 

7.4 

4°-14' 

.27283 

9.4 

5°-23' 

.44303 

11.4 

6°-31' 

.65031 

7.5 

4°-18' 

.28149 

9.5 

5°-26' 

.45133 

11.5 

6°-34' 

.66038 

7.6 

4°-21' 

.28807 

9.6 

5°-29' 

.45970 

11.6 

6°-38' 

.67394 

7.7 

4°-25' 

.29696 

9.7 

5°-33' 

.47098 

11.7 

6°-41' 

.68419 

7.8 

4°-28' 

.30372 

9.8 

5°-36' 

.47955 

11.8 

6°-44' 

.69453 

7.9 

4°-32' 

.31383 

9.9 

5°-40' 

.49107 

11.9 

6°-48' 

.70843 

198 


Conversion 

Table 

Conversion  Table 

Basis:  I cubic  foot  of  water  at  39.1°F.  = 

= 62 . 425  pounds. 

1 U.  S.  gallon  = 231  cubic  inches. 

1 imperial  gallon  = 277.274  cubic  inches.* 

U.  S.  gallon 

231.000000  cubic  inches. 

U.  S.  gallon 

= 

0.133681  cubic  foot. 

U.  S.  gallon 

= 

0.833111  imperial  gallon. 

U.  S.  gallon 

= 

3.785434  liters. 

U.  S.  gallon  of  water  at  39.1  °F 

. . . = 

8 . 345009  pounds. 

Imperial  gallon 

277.274000  cubic  inches. 

Imperial  gallon 

. = 

0 . 160459  cubic  foot. 

Imperial  gallon 

. . . = 

1.200320  U.  S.  gallons. 

Imperial  gallon 

. . . = 

4.543734  liters. 

Imperial  gallon  of  water  at  39. 1°F.  . . . 

. . . = 

10.016684  pounds.* 

Cubic  foot 

— 

7.480519  U.  S.  gallons. 

Cubic  foot 

= 

6.232103  imperial  gallons. 

Cubic  foot 

= 

28.317016  liters. 

Cubic  foot  of  water  at  39.1  °F 

= 

62 . 425000  pounds. 

Cubic  foot  of  water  at  39.1  °F 

. . . = 

0.031212  ton. 

Cubic  inch 

— 

0.004329  U.  S.  gallon. 

Cubic  inch 

= 

0 . 003607  imperial  gallon. 

Cubic  inch 

= 

0.016387  liter. 

Cubic  inch  of  water  at  39 . 1°F 

= 

0.036126  pound. 

Cubic  inch  of  water  at  39 . 1°F ........ 

. . . = 

0 . 578009  ounce. 

Pound  of  water  at  39 . 1°F 

= 

27.681217  cubic  inches. 

Pound  of  water  at  39 . 1°F 

= 

0.016019  cubic  foot. 

Pound  of  water  at  39 . 1°F 

= 

0.119832  U.  S.  gallon. 

Pound  of  water  at39.1°F 

= 

0 . 099833  imperial  gallon. 

Pound  of  water  at  39 . 1°F 

. . . = 

0.453617  liter. 

Liter 

0.264170  U.  S.  gallon. 

Liter 

. . . = 

0 . 220083  imperial  gallon. 

Liter 

= 

61.023378  cubic  inches. 

Liter 

= 

0.035314  cubic  foot. 

Liter  of  water  at  39 . 1°F 

. . . = 

2 . 204505  pounds. 

*The  British  imperial  gallon  is  usually  defined  as  being  equal  to  277 . 274 

cubic  inches,  or  10  pounds  of  pure  water  at  the  temperature  of  62°F.  when 

the  barometer  is  at  30  inches. 

199 


Equivalents 


CONVENIENT  EQUIVALENTS 

1 second-foot  equals  40  California  miner’s  inches.  (Law  of  March  23, 
1901.) 

1 second-foot  equals  38.4  Colorado  miner’s  inches. 

1 second-foot  equals  7.48  United  States  gallons  per  second;  equals  448.8 
gallons  per  mintue;  equals  646  317  gallons  per  day. 

1 second-loot  equals  6.23  British  imperial  gallons  per  second. 

1 second-foot  for  one  year  covers  one  square  mile  1,131  feet  deep; 
13.57  inches  deep. 

1 second-foot  for  one  year  equals  31  536  000  cubic  feet. 

1 second-foot  equals  about  one  acre-inch  per  hour. 

1 second-foot  falling  10  feet  equals  1 . 136  horse-power. 

100  California  miner’s  inches  equal  18 . 7 United  States  gallons  per 
second. 

100  California  miner’s  inches  equal  96.0  Colorado  miner’s  inches. 

100  California  miner’s  inches  for  one  day  equal  4.96  acre-feet. 

100  Colorado  miner’s  inches  equal  2.60  second-feet. 

100  Colorado  miner’s  inches  equal  19.5  United  States  gallons  per 
second. 

100  Colorado  miner’s  inches  equal  104  California  miner’s  inches. 

100  Colorado  miner’s  inches  for  one  day  equal  5 . 17  acre-feet. 

100  United  States  gallons  per  minute  equal  0 . 223  second-foot. 

100  United  States  gallons  per  minute  for  one  day  equal  0.442  acre- 
foot. 

1 000  000  United  States  gallons  per  day  equal  1.55  second-feet. 

1 000  000  United  States  gallons  equal  3.07  acre-feet. 

1 000  000  cubic  feet  equal  22 . 96  acre-feet. 

1 acre-foot  equals  325  851  gallons. 

1 inch  deep  on  1 square  mile  equals  2 323  200  cubic  feet. 

1 inch  deep  on  1 square  mile  equals  . 0737  second-foot  per  year. 


200 


Installation 


Fig.  77— -66"  LOCK-BAR  PIPE  LINE— BROOKLYN,  N.  Y.  THROUGH  CITY  STREETS 


201 


Weights  of  Steel  Plates 

Weights  of  Steel  Plates 


Per  Square  Foot 


u.  s. 

Standard 
July  1,  1893 

American 

English 

Decimals 

Inches 

Steel 

Brown  & 
Sharpe 

Stubbs  or 
Birming- 
ham 

. 1875 

3/16 

7.655 

7 

.188 

6 

6 

.203 

8.288 

. 203125 

13/64 

8.293 

4 

. 20431 

8.342 

,2187s 

7/32 

8.931 

5 

.219 

5 

.22 

8.982 

3 

. 22942 

9.367 

4 

.234 

234375 

15/64 

9.569 

4 

.238 

9.717 

24491s 

10.000 

3 

.250 

1/4 

10.207 

2 

.257™ 

10  519 

3 

.259 

10.575 

. 265625 

17/64 

10.845 

2 

.266 

1 

.281 

.28125 

9/32 

11.483 

2 

.284' 

11.595 

1 

,289s 

11  812 

. 296875 

19/64 

12  121 

1 

.300 

12.249 

,312s 

5/16 

12.759 

0 

.313 

0 

. 32486 

13.264 

. 328125 

21/64 

13.397 

0 

.34 

13.882 

. 34375 

11/32 

14.035 

00 

.344 

. 359S7S 

23/64 

14.673 

00 

,3648 

14.894 

,367s 

14.996 

000 

.375 

3/8 

15.311 

00 

.38 

15  515 

. 390625 

25/64 

15  949 

0000 

.406 

. 40625 

13/32 

16.587 

000 

. 409M 

16.725 

Weights  of  Steel  Plates 


Weights  of  Steel  Plates— Continued 

Per  Square  Foot 


u.  s. 

Standard 
July  1,  1893 

American 

English 

Brown  & 
Sharpe 

Stubbs  0] 
Birming- 

r Decimals 

Inches 

Steel 

ham 

000 

.421875 

27/64 

17.225 

.425 

17.352 

00000 

.4375 

.438 

7/16 

17.863 

0000 

. 453125 

29/64 

18.501 

0000 

.454 

.46 

18 . 536 
18.781 

000000 

. 46875 
.469 

15/32 

19.139 

0000000 

00000 

.484875 

.500 

31/64 

1/2 

19.777 

20.415 

,515623 

33/64 

21.053 

.53125 

17/32 

21.691 

. 546876 

35/64 

22.329 

.5625 

9/16 

22.966 

. 578125 

37/64 

23.604 

. 59375 

19/32 

24.242 

. 609375 

39/64 

24.880 

.625 

5/8 

25.518 

. 640623 

41/64 

26.156 

. 65623  , 
.671873 

21/32 

26.794 

43/64 

27.432 

.6873 

11/16 

28.070 

. 703123 

45/64 

28 . 708 

.71875 

23/32 

.29.346 

. 734375 

47/64 

29.984 

.750 

3/4 

30.622 

. 765625 

49/64 

31.260 

.78125 

25/32 

31.898 

,796873 

51/64 

32.536 

.8125 

13/16 

33.174 

. 828123 

53/64 

33.812 

. 84375 

27/32 

34.450 

,859873 

55/64 

35.088 

.875 

7/8 

35.726 

.890625 

57/64 

36.364 

. 90623 

29/32 

37.002 

203 


Weights  of  Steel  Plates 


Weights  of  Steel  Plates — Continued 

Per  Square  Foot 


Decimals 

Inches 

Steel 

Decimals 

Inches 

Steel 

.921  875 

59/64 

37.640 

1 . 2187S 

1 . 7/32 

49.761 

,937  s 

15/16 

38.278 

1.23437 

1 . 15/64 

50.399 

.953  125 

61/64 

38.916 

1.25 

1.1/4 

51.037 

.968  75 

31/32 

39 . 554 

1.28125 

1.9/32 

52.313 

.984  375 

63/64 

40 . 192 

1.312s 

1.5/16 

53.589 

1. 

1 

40.83 

1.34375 

1.11/32 

54.865 

1.015 62 

1 . 1/64 

41.467 

1.375 

1 . 3/8 

56.141 

1.031 26 

1.1/32 

42  106 

1.40625 

1 13/32 

57.417 

1.046  87 

1.3/64 

42  744 

1.437s 

1 7/16 

58.693 

1.062  s 

1.1/16 

43.381 

1.46875 

1 . 15/32 

59.969 

1.078  12 

1 . 5/64 

44.019 

1.5 

1 1/2 

61.245 

1.093  75 

1 . 3/32 

44  657 

1.53125 

1 . 17/32 

62.521 

1.109  37 

1 . 7/64 

45.295 

1.562s 

1 . 9/16 

63.796 

1.125 

1.1/8 

45.933 

1.59375 

1 19/32 

65.072 

1 . 140  62 

1.9/64 

46.571 

1.625 

1.5/8 

66.348 

1 . 156  25 

1.5/32 

47  209 

1 . 6562S 

1.21/32 

67.624 

1.171  87 

1.11/64 

47.847 

1.687s 

1 11/16 

68.900 

1.187  s 

1.3/16 

48.485 

1 . 7187S 

1.23/32 

70.176 

1.203  12 

1 . 13/64 

49.123 

1.75 

1.3/4 

71.452 

Note. — This  table  is  based  upon  the  average  weight  of  1 cubic  foot  of 
Steel,  as  given  by — 


Haswell, 490.12 

Nystrom, 489.80 


In  calculating  total  weights  of  Plates,  a percentage  must  be 
added  to  the  weight  given  in  this  table  to  allow  for  spring  of  Rolls, 
according  to  width  and  gauge  of  Plates.  See  Standard  Specifica- 
tions, table  of  allowance  for  overweight,  pages  26  and  27. 


204 


Size  in 
Inches 


8 x8 


x3^ 

x6 
x4 

x3  H 

x5 
x4 

x3^ 

x3 
4^x3 
4 x4 

4 x3}4 

3^x3^ 

3 H 3 

3Hx2J4 

3Mx334 

3Mx2 
3 x3 
3 x2  K 
3 x2 

2Mx2^ 

2Hx234 

2^x2 

2 3^x1^ 
2Hxl^ 
2 34x2  34 
2Mxi3^ 

2 x2 
2 xiy2 

2 xlH 

l^xl  % 

iy2xiy2 
iy8xi 
iy8x  h 
lXxlX 
iy8xiy8 

1 xl 

1 X X 

1 X y8 

y8x  y8 

%X  % 


Weights  of  Steel  Angles 


WEIGHTS  OF  STEEL  ANGLES 


Thickness  in  Inches 


Vs 

3 

16 

M 

5 

16 

% 

7 

16 

9 

16 

% 

n 

16 

M 

13 

16 

Vs 

15 

16 

1 

26.4 

29.6 

32.7 

35.8 

38.9 

42.0 

45.0 

48.1 

51 .0 

15.0 

17.0 

19.1 

21.0 

23.0 

24.9 

26!  8 

28.7 

30.5 

32 ! 3 

14.9 

17.2 

19.6 

21 .9 

24.2 

26.5 

28  7 

31.0 

33.1 

35.3 

37 .4 

12.3 

14.3 

16.2 

18.1 

20.0 

21.8 

23.6 

25.4 

27.2 

28.9 

30.6 

11.7 

13.5 

15.3 

17.1 

18.9 

20.6 

22.4 

24  0 

25.7 

27.3 

28!  9 

12.3 

14.3 

16.2 

18.1 

20.0 

21.8 

23.6 

25.4 

27.2 

28.9 

30 ! 6 

11.0 

12.8 

14.5 

16.2 

17.8 

19.5 

21.1 

22  7 

24.2 

8.7 

10.4 

12.0 

13.6 

15.2 

16.8 

18.3 

19.8 

21.3 

22.7 

8.2 

9.8 

11.3 

12.8 

14.3 

15.7 

17.1 

18.5 

19.9 

7.7 

9.1 

10.6 

11.9 

13.3 

14.7 

16.0 

17.3 

18  5 

5.2 

6.6 

8.2 

9.8 

11.3 

12.8 

14.3 

15.7 

17.1 

18.5 

19.9 

7.7 

9.1 

10.6 

11.9 

13.3 

14.7 

16.0 

17.3 

7.2 

8.5 

9.8 

11.1 

12.4 

13.6 

14.8 

16.0 

17  1 

5.8 

7.2 

8.5 

9.8 

11.1 

12.4 

13.6 

14.8 

16.0 

17.1 

6.6 

7.9 

9.1 

10.2 

11 .4 

12.5 

13.6 

14  7 

15  8 

4.9 

6.1 

7.2 

8.3 

9.4 

10.4 

11.5 

12.5 

7.85 

4.3 

5.3 

6.3 

7.2 

8.1 

9.0 

2.5 

3.7 

4.9 

6.1 

7.2 

8.3 

9.4 

10.4 

11.5 

3.4 

4.5 

5.6 

6.6 

7.6 

8.5 

9.5 

3.1 

4.1 

5.0 

5.9 

6.8 

7.7 

2.3 

3.4 

4.5 

5.6 

6.6 

7.6 

8.5 

2.1 

3.1 

4.1 

5.0 

5.9 

6.8 

7.7 

2.8 

3.7 

4.5 

5.3 

6.1 

6.8 

2.6 

3.4 

2.4 

3.2 

3.9 

1.9 

2.8 

3.7 

4.5 

5.3 

6.1 

6.8 

2.3 

3.0 

3.7 

4.4 

5.0 

5.6 

i.7 

2.5 

3.2 

4.0 

4.7 

5.3 

2.1 

2.8 

3.4 

4.0 

2.1 

2.7 

i.4 

2.2 

2.8 

3.4 

4.0 

4.6 

1.3 

1.8 

2.4 

2.9 

3.4 

1.0 

1.9 

0.9 

i .3 

1.1 

1.48 

2.0 

2.4 

0.9 

1.3 

0.8 

1.2 

1.5 

0.7 

1.0 

0.6 

0.9 

0.7 

1.0 

0.6 

0.9 

0.5 

The  above  weights  are  given  in  pounds  per  foot 


205 


Estimated  Weights  per  Hundred  Rivets 


CONE-HEAD  BOILER  RIVETS 
OF  SCANT  DIAMETER 


L’gth 

Inches 

34 

A 

** 

tt 

% 

13. 

16 

Vs 

1 

IK* 

K 

8.75 

13.7 

16.20 

Vs 

9.35 

14.4 

17.22 

1 

10.00 

15.2 

18.25 

21.70 

26.55 

37.0 

46 

60 

1 Ys 

10.70 

16.0 

19.28 

23.10 

28.00 

38.6 

48 

63 

95 

IK 

11.40 

16.8 

20.31 

24.50 

29.45 

40.2 

50 

65 

98 

133 

1 Vs 

12.10 

17.6 

21.34 

25.90 

30.90 

41.9 

52 

67 

101 

137 

IV 

12.80 

18.4 

22.37 

27.30 

32.35 

43.5 

54 

69 

104 

141 

1 Vs 

13 .50 

19.2 

23.40 

28.70 

33.80 

45.2 

56 

71 

107 

145 

1% 

. 14.20 

20.0 

24.43 

30.10 

35.25 

IVs 

14.90 

20.8 

25.46 

31.50 

36.70 

2 

15.60 

21.6 

26.49 

32.90 

38.15 

47. 

58 

74 

110 

149 

2 Vs 

16.30 

22.4 

27.52 

34.30 

39.60 

48.7 

60 

77 

114 

153 

^K 

17.00 

23.2 

28.55 

35.70 

41.05 

50.3 

62 

80 

118 

157 

2% 

17.70 

24.0 

29.58 

37.10 

42.50 

51.9 

64 

83 

121 

161 

2K 

18.40 

24.8 

30.61 

38.50 

43.95 

53.5 

66 

86 

124 

165 

2% 

19.10 

25.6 

31.64 

39.90 

45.40 

55.1 

68 

89 

127 

169 

2/4 

19.80 

26.4 

32.67 

41.30 

46.85 

56.8 

70 

92 

130 

173 

27/s 

20.50 

27.2 

33.70 

42.70 

48.30 

58.4 

72 

95 

133 

177 

3 

21.20 

28.0 

34.73 

44.10 

49.75 

60. 

74 

98 

137 

181 

3 J4 

22.60 

29.7 

36.79 

46.90 

52.65 

63.3 

78 

103 

144 

189 

3 3 4 

24.00 

31.5 

38.85 

49.70 

55.55 

66.5 

82 

108 

151 

197 

3 34 

25.40 

33.3 

40.91 

52.50 

58.45 

69.8 

86 

113 

158 

205 

4 

26.80 

35.2 

42.97 

55.30 

61.35 

73. 

90 

118 

165 

213 

434 

28.20 

36.9 

45.00 

58.10 

64.25 

76.3 

94 

124 

172 

221 

±l/2 

29.60 

38.6 

47.09 

60.90 

67.15 

79.5 

98 

130 

179 

229 

31.00 

40.3 

49.15 

63.70 

70.05 

82.8 

102 

136 

186 

237 

5 

32.40 

42.0 

51.21 

66.50 

72.95 

86. 

106 

142 

193 

245 

534 

33.80 

43.7 

53.27 

69.20 

75.85 

89.3 

110 

148 

200 

254 

53i 

35.20 

45.4 

55.33 

72.00 

78.75 

92.5 

114 

154 

206 

263 

5?4 

36.60 

47.1 

57.39 

74.80 

81.65 

95.7 

118 

160 

212 

272 

6 

38.00 

48.8 

59.45 

77.60 

84.55 

99. 

122 

166 

218 

281 

634 

40.80 

52.0 

63.57 

83.30 

90.35 

105.5 

130 

177 

231 

297 

7 

43.60 

55 . 2 

67.69 

88.90 

96.15 

112. 

138 

188 

245 

314 

Heads. 

5.50 

8.40 

11.50 

13.20 

18.00 

23.0 

29.0 

38.0 

56.0 

77.5 

*These  two  sizes  are  calculated  for  exact  diameter. 
tt  Button-Heads  weigh  approximately  the  same  as  Cone- 

Head  Rivets. 


ft  ft  tt  tt 

Steeple.  Round.  Cone.  Countersunk 

The  measure  of  Countersunk  Head  Rivets  is  over  all.  All  other  styles 
are  measured  from  under  the  head.  Boiler  Rivets  less  than  one  inch  long 
are  one-half  cent  per  pound  extra.  Tank  Rivets  inch  in  diameter  and 
less  are  sold  at  a list  price  and  subject  to  discount. 


206 


Metric  Conversion  Table 


Metric  Conversion  Table 

Arranged  by  C.  W.  Hunt,  New  York. 


Millimeters  X .03937  = inches. 
Millimeters  -=-25.4=  inches. 
Centimeters  X . 393  = inches. 
Centimeters  4-2.54  = inches. 
Meters X 39. 37=  in.  (Act  Cong.) 
Meters  X 3 . 28  = feet. 

Meters  X 1 . 094  = yards. 
Kilometers  X . 621  = miles. 
Kilometres  1 . 6093  = miles. 
Kilometers  X 3280 . 7 = feet. 

Sq.  Millimeters  X . 055  = sq.  in. 

Sq . Millimeters  4-  645  = sq.  in . 

Sq.  Centimeters  X . 155  = sq.  in. 
Sq.  Centimeters  4- 6. 45  =sq.  in. 
Sq.  Meters X 10. 764  =sq.  ft. 

Sq.  Kilometers  X 247 . 1 = acres. 
Hectars  X 2 . 47  = acres. 

Cu.  Centimeters  4-16. 387  = cu.  in. 
Cu.  Centimeters  4-3 . 69  =fl.  drs. 
(U.  S.  P.) 

Cu.  Centimeters-r-29.57=fl.  ozs. 
(U.  S.  P.) 

Cu.  Meters X 35. 314  = cu.  ft. 

Cu.  Meters XI  .308  = cu.  yds. 

Cu.  Meters X 264. 2=  gals.  (231 
cubic  inches.) 

Litres  X 61 .023  = cu.  in.  (Act 
Cong.) 

Litres X 33. 84  = fl.  oz.  (U.  S.  P.) 
Litres  X 2642  = gals.  (231  cu.  in.) 
Litres 4- 3. 78  = gals.  (231  cu.  in.) 
Litres 4- 28. 31 7 = cubic  feet. 
Hectolitres  X 3 . 53  = cubic  feet. 
Hectolitres 4- 2. 84 =bu.  (2150.42 
cu.  inches.) 


Hectolitres  X . 131  =cu,  yds. 

Hectolitres 4-26.42  = gals.  (231 
cubic  inches.) 

Grammes  X 15 . 432  = grains  (Act 
Congress.) 

Grammes  4-  981  = dynes. 

Grammes  (water)  4-29 . 57  = fl.  oz 

Grammes 4- 28. 35  = oz.  av’pois. 

Grammes  per  cu.  cent 4- 27. 7 = 
lbs.  per  cu.  in. 

Joule  X .7373=  ft.  pounds. 

Kilo-grammes  X 2 . 2046  = lbs. 

Kilo-grammes  X 35 . 3 = oz . avoir- 
dupois. 

Kilo-grammes  4-1102.3  = tons. 
(2,000  lbs.) 

Kilo-grammes  per  sq.  cent.  X 
14.223=  lbs.  per  sq.  in. 

Kilo-gram  metres  X 7.233  = ft. 
lbs. 

Kilo  per  metre  X .672  = lbs.  per 
foot. 

Kilo  per  cubic  metre  X . 026  = 
lbs.  per  cubic  foot. 

Kilo  per  ChevalX2.235  =lbs. 
per  horsepower. 

Kilo-Watts XI. 35  =H.  P. 

Watts  4-  746  = Horse  Power. 

Watts  4- 737  =ft.  lbs.  per  second. 

Calorie X 3. 968  = B.  T.  U. 

Cheval  vapeurX98.3  = H.  P. 

(Centigrade)  X 18 +32  = deg.  F. 

Franc  X 193  = dollars. 

Gravity  Paris  = 980 . 94  centime- 
ters per  second. 


207 


Useful  Factors 


Inches 

X 

0.08333 

= feet 

Inches 

X 

0.02778 

= yards 

Inches 

X 

0.00001578 

= miles 

Square  inches 

X 

0.00695 

= square  feet 

Square  inches 

X 

0.0007716 

= square  yards 

Cubic  inches 

X 

0.00058 

= cubic  feet 

Cubic  inches 

X 

0.0000214 

= cubic  yards 

Cubic  inches 

X 

0.004329 

= U.  S.  gallons 

Feet 

X 

0.334 

= yards 

Feet 

X 

0.00019 

= miles 

Square  feet 

X 

144.00 

= square  inches. 

Square  feet 

X 

0.1112 

= square  yards 

Cubic  feet 

X 

1728.00 

= cubic  inches 

Cubic  feet 

X 

0.03704 

= cubic  yards 

Cubic  feet 

X 

7.48 

= U.  S.  gallons 

Yards 

X 

36.000 

= inches 

Yards 

X 

3.000 

= feet 

Yards 

X 

0.0005681 

= miles 

Square  yards 

X 

1296.000 

= square  inches 

Square  yards 

X 

9.000 

= square  feet 

Cubic  yards 

X 

46656.000 

= cubic  inches 

Cubic  yards 

X 

27.000 

= cubic  feet 

Miles 

X 

63360.000 

= inches 

Miles 

X 

5280.000 

= feet 

Miles 

X 

1760.000 

= yards 

Avoirdupois  ounces 

X 

0.0625 

= pounds 

Avoirdupois  ounces 

X 

0.00003125 

= tons 

Avoirdupois  pounds 

X 

16.000 

= ounces 

Avoirdupois  pounds 

X 

.01 

= hundredweight 

Avoirdupois  pounds 

X 

0.0005 

= tons 

Avoirdupois  pounds 

X 

27.681 

= cu.  in  wat.  at  39.2°F. 

Avoirdupois  tons 

X 

32000.00 

= ounces 

Avoirdupois  tons 

X 

2000.00 

= pounds 

Horsepower 

X 

746.00 

= Watts 

Watts 

X 

0.00134 

= horsepower 

208 


Useful  Factors 


Cubic  feet  (of  water)  (39.1°) 

X 

62.425 

= pounds 

Cubic  feet  (of  water)  (39 . 1°) 

X 

7.48 

= U.  S.  gallons 

Cubic  feet  (of  water)  (39.1°) 

X 

6.232 

= English  gallons 

Cubic  feet  (of  water)  (39 . 1°) 

X 

0.028 

= tons 

Cubic  foot  of  ice 

X 

57.2 

= pounds 

Cubic  inches  of  water  (39 .1°) 

X 

0.036024 

= pounds 

Cubic  inches  of  water  (39 .1°) 

X 

0.004329 

= U.  S.  gallons 

Cubic  inches  of  water  (39 . 1°) 

X 

0.003607 

= English  gallons 

Cubic  inches  of  water  (39.1°) 

X 

0.576384 

= ounces 

Pounds  of  water 

X 

27.72 

= cubic  inches 

Pounds  of  water 

X 

0.01602 

= cubic  feet 

Pounds  of  water 

X 

0.083 

= U.  S.  gallons 

Pounds  of  water 

X 

0.10 

= English  gallons 

Tons  of  water 

X 

268.80 

= U.  S.  gallons 

Tons  of  water 

X 

224.00 

= English  gallons 

Tons  of  water 

X 

35.90 

= cubic  feet 

Ounces  of  water 

X 

1.735 

= cubic  inches 

A column  of  water  1 inch  square  by  1 foot  high  weighs  0.434  pounds. 
A column  of  water  1 inch  square  by  2.31  feet  high  weighs  1 pound. 
Water  is  at  its  greatest  density  at  39.2°  F. 

Sea  water  is  1 .6  to  1 .9  heavier  than  fresh. 

One  cubic  inch  of  water  makes  approximately  1 cubic  foot  of  steam 
at  atmospheric  pressure. 

27222  cubic  feet  of  steam  at  atmospheric  pressure  weighs  1 pound. 
Weight  of  round  iron  per  foot  = square  of  diameter  in  quarter  inches  -5-  6 
Weight  of  flat  iron  per  foot  = width  X thickness  X 10-3. 

Weight  of  flat  plates  per  square  foot  = 5 pounds  for  each^-inch  thick 
ness. 

Weight  of  chain  = diameter  squared XI 0.7  (approximately.) 

Safe  load  (in  pounds)  for  chains  = square  of  quarter  inches  in  diameter 
of  bar. 


U.  S.  gallons 
U.  S.  gallons 
U.  S.  gallons 
U.  S.  gallons 
U.  S.  gallons 

English  gallons  (Imperial) 
English  gallons  (Imperial) 
English  gallons  (Imperial) 
English  gallons  (Imperial) 
English  gallons  (Imperial) 


Water  Factors 


X 

8 

X 

0 

X 

231 

X 

0 

X 

3 

X 

10 

X 

0 

X 

277 

X 

1 

X 

4 

.33 

= pounds 

. 13368 

= cubic  feet 

00 

= cubic  inches 

83 

= English  gallons 

78 

= litres 

= pounds 

16 

= cubic  feet 

274 

= cubic  inches 

2 

= U.  S.  gallons 

537 

= litres 

209 


Useful  Information 


To  find  circumference  of  a circle  multiply  diameter  by  3.1416. 

To  find  diameter  of  a circle  multiply  circumference  by  .3183. 

To  find  area  of  a circle  multiply  square  of  diameter  by  .7854. 

To  find  surface  of  a ball  multiply  square  of  diameter  by  3.1416. 

To  find  side  of  an  equal  square  multiply  diameter  by  .8862. 

To  find  cubic  inches  in  a ball  multiply  cube  of  diameter  by  .5236. 

Doubling  the  diameter  of  a pipe  increases  its  capacity  four  times. 

A gallon  of  water  (U.  S.  standard)  weighs  8}£  lbs.  and  contains  231 
cubic  inches. 

A cubic  foot  of  water  contains  7.48  gallons,  1728  cubic  inches,  and  weighs 
62.4  lbs. 

To  find  the  pressure  in  pounds  per  square  inch  of  a column  of  water 
multiply  the  height  of  the  column  in  feet  by  .434. 

A standard  horse  power:  The  evaporation  of  30  lbs.  of  water  per  hour 
from  a feed-water  temperature  of  100°  F.  into  steam  at  70  lbs.  gauge 
pressure.  One  horse  power  is  the  power  required  to  raise  33,000  lbs. 
one  foot  in  one  minute. 

Equals  33,000  foot-pounds  per  minute 
“ 1,980,000  “ “ hour 

To  find  the  horse-power  of  an  engine  multiply  the  piston  speed  in  feet 
per  minute  by  the  area  of  the  piston  in  square  inches  and  by  the 
mean  effective  pressure,  then  divide  by  33,000. 

Each  nominal  horse  power  in  boilers  requires  one  cubic  foot  of  water 
per  hour. 

In  calculating  horse  power  of  tubular  boilers,  consider  12  square  feet 
of  heating  surface  equal  to  one  nominal  horse  power.) 

To  find  capacity  of  tanks  any  size;  given  dimensions  of  a cylinder  in 
inches,  to  find  its  capacity  in  U.  S.  gallons: 


210 


Useful  Information 


Square  the  diameter,  multiply  by  the  length  and  by  ,0034. 


To  approximately  ascertain  heating  surface  in  tubular  boilers  multiply 
% the  circumference  of  boiler  by  length  of  boiler  in  inches  and  add  to  it 
the  area  of  all  the  tubes. 

When  designing  boilers  the  T.  S.  is  specified,  the  factor  of  safety,  diameter 
and  pressure  per  square  inch  are  decided  upon,  and  the  only  quantities  . 
remaining  unknown  are  the  thickness  and  the  efficiency  of  the  joint. 

Let  P=  pressure  of  steam  in  pounds  per  square  inch. 

T = thickness  of  plate  in  shell. 

E=  efficiency  of  joints  in  shell. 

D = diameter  of  shell. 

Si  = ultimate  strength  of  material. 

F=  factor  of  safety. 

Solving  the  equation  ^ ^ = TXE 


XPXF 
2 Si  XE 


Pressure  allowable  for  concaved  heads  of  boilers:  Multiply  the  pressure 
per  square  inch  allowable  for  bumped  heads  attached  to  boilers  or  drums 
convexly  by  the  constant  .6,  and  the  product  will  give  the  pressure  per 
square  inch  allowable  in  concaved  heads. — U.  S.  Gov.  Rule  II,  Par.  12. 

To  find  the  amount  of  air  that  can  be  produced  by  different  size  air  cylin- 
ders : Find  the  area  of  the  cylinder  and  multiply  that  by  the  stroke;  then 
multiply  result  by  2 if  it  is  a Straight  Line  Compressor;  by  4 if  a Duplex 
Compressor;  or  by  2 if  Compound  Duplex  Compressor.  Divide  this 
result  by  1728,  which  will  give  amount  of  air  per  stroke  and  then  multi-  j 
ply  by  number  of  strokes  per  minute. 


211 


CROSS  INDEX 


Air-Bound  Pipes 130 

Valves 164 

Anchorages 65 

Angles,  Steel,  Weights  of,  Table 205 

Approximate  Formula,  Trautwine.  ..  124 

Areas  and  Circumferences  of  Circles, 

Table 192 

Arcs,  Circular,  Lengths  of,  Table ....  197 

Assembling  and  Lowering  Pipe 170 

Lock  Bar-Pipe 19 


Cast-Iron,  Failure 87-94,  96 

Values  of  “C”  in  Chezy Formula, for  131 
Values  of  “f”  in  Fanning’s 

Formula,  for 132 

Cast-Iron  Vs.  Steel  Pipe 75-77 

Cause  of  corrosion 74-78 

Chemical  and  Physical  Properties 

of  Materials 13 

Chezy  Formula 131 

Values  of  “C”  for  Cast-Iron 

Pipes . ..  . 131 

Circular  Arcs,  Lengths  of,  Table ....  197 

Circular  Seams,  Rivets  in,  Table.  ...  62 

Circumferences  and  Areas  of  Circles, 


Barrels,  contents  of,  Table 

158 

Table 

192-195 

Bazin  Formula 

.144, 

149 

Coating  Pipe 

21 

Bearing  and  Shearing  Value  of  Rivets, 

Coating,  specifications  for 

17 

Table 

..  .63,  64 

Cast-Iron  Pipe,  Table 

84 

Bending  Tests 

13 

Collection  of  Water 

..  156 

Bends  in  Steel  Pipe 

' 68 

Compressibility  of  Water 

..  119 

Bernoulli’s  Theorem 

153 

Conduits,  Water  Supply 

165, 166 

Beveling,  Truing  and  Punching 

of 

Cone-Head  Boiler  Rivets  Table . . . 

..  206 

Lock-Bar  Pipe 

17 

Connections  and  Accessories 

of 

Blow-Offs 

165 

Gates 

..  161 

Boxes 

163 

Connections,  Standard  Blow-Off . . 

44 

Blow-Off  Connections,  Standard.  . 

44 

Constants,  Cut,  Table 

..  191 

Box,  Measuring,  Miners’  Inch.  . . 

143 

Consumption,  Water 

178-184 

Boxes,  Blow-Off 

163 

Contents,  in  Barrels,  Table 

..  158 

Butt  Joints,  Double  Riveted  Table.  . 

59 

of  Cylindrical  Vessels  Tanks  and 

Triple  Riveted  Strength 

of, 

Cisterns,  Table 

..  157 

Table 

60 

of  Pipes  and  Cylinders,  Table. 

..  156 

Quadruple  Riveted,  Strength  of, 

Contraction  in  Pipe 

..  137 

Table 

61 

Convenient  Equivalents 

..  200 

Butt  Strap  Joint 

37 

Conversion  Table 

..  199 

By-Passes 

161 

Metric 

..  207 

Corrections,  Length,  Table 

..  198 

Corrosion 

. . 74-78 

C 

Cause  of 

. . 74-78 

Capacity  of  Steel  Pipe,  Carrying . , 

73 

of  Iron  and  Steel 

..  78 

Carrying  Capacity  of  Steel  Pipe. . 

73 

of  Wrought  Iron  and  Steel, 

Cast-Iron,  Pipe  Coatings,  Table. . 

84 

Relative 

..77,  78 

Electrolysis  in 

79 

Cost  of  Steel  Pipes 

..  86 

212 


CROSS  INDEX  Continued 


Coupling,  Flexible  High  Pressure. ...  38 

Covers,  Masonry 167 

Crib,  Submerged 159 

Crimping  and  Rolling  of  Lock-Bar 

Pipes 19 

Cubic  Feet  and  Gallons,  Table 155 

Current  Motors, 153 

Cut  constants,  Table 191 

Curvature  in  Pipe 136 

Cylinders  and  Pipes,  Contents  of . . . . 156 

Cylindrical  Vessels,  Tanks  and  Cis- 
terns, Contents  of,  Table 157 

D 

Darcy’s  Formula 126, 127, 131,  132 

Values  of  “C” 127 

Data  for  Steel  Pipe,  Table 65 

Steel  Standpipes 174, 175 

Destruction  of  a Pipe 79,  80 

Diameter,  Variations  in 136 

Discharges  and  Velocities  for  Pipe. . . 133 

Distribution  System 176 

Double  Riveted  Butt  Joints,  Table.  . 59 

Lap  Joints,  Table  ! 57 

E 

Electrically  Operated  Gates 164 

Electrolysis 79-81 

in  Cast-Iron  Pipes 79 

of  Steel  Pipe 80 

Elevated  Steel  Tanks 176 

Elongation  Tests 13 

Equivalents,  convenient 200 

Evacuation,  Trench 169,  170 

Expansions  in  Pipe 136 

Expansion  Joint,  East  Jersey.  ......  39 

Exponential  Formula  for  Pipes ....  134,  135 

Williams  & Hazen’s 127 

F 

Fabricating  of  Lock-Bar  Pipe 17 

Factors,  Useful 208,209 

Water 209 

Failure,  Cast-Iron  Pipe 

87,  88,  89,  90,  91,  92,  93,  94,  96 

Fall  of  Water,  Power  of, 152 


Fanning’s  Formula 132 

Fanning’s  Formula  Values  of  “f”  for 

Cast-Iron  Pipes  132 

Field  Test  Head 49 

Fire,  Protection 182, 183 

Service  Pressure 166 

Stream,  Standard 184 

Flange  Joint 37 

Flexible  Coupling,  High  Pressure. ...  38 

Flexible  Submarine  Joint 41 

Flow,  mean  velocity  of 124 

of  Water  in  Pipes 119,  120,  123 

Flowing  Water,  Measurement  of . . . . 138 

Formula  Bazin 144,  149 

Chezy 131 

Chezy,  Values  of  “C”  for  Cast- 

Iron  Pipe 131 

Chezy,  Values  of  “C”  for  Steel 

Riveted  Pipes 132 

Darcy’s 126,  127,  131,  132 

Darcy’s  Values  of  “C” 127 

Exponential  for  Pipes 134,  135 

Exponential,  Williams  and  Ha- 
zen’s  127 

Fanning’s 132 

Francis 144,147 

Fteley  and  Stearns 144 

Hamilton  Smith 144 

Kutter’s 125 

approximate,  Trautwine 124 

Four,  for  Discharge  of  Wiers, . . . 144 

of  Long  Pipe  Lines 131 

Weirs,  Table 149,  150 

Four  Formulas  for  Discharge  of 

Wiers. . . 144 

Francis  Formula 144,  147 

Fteley  and  Stearns  Formula 144 

G 

Gallons  and  Cubic  Feet,  Table 155 

Gate  Valves 161 

Vaults 162 

Gates,  Accessories  and  Connections 

of 161 

Electrically  operated 164 

Hydraulically  operated 161 

on  Steel  Pipes 160 

Sluice 164 


213 


CROSS  INDEX  Continued 


Gates  and  Gate  Valves 177 

Gears 161 

Girth  Joints,  Lap,  Single  Riveted, 

Table 56 

Grade — Line,  Hydraulic 130 

Gridiron  System 176 

H 

| Hamilton  Smith  Formula 144 

Hammer,  Water ....  130 

Haasen’s  and  Williams  Exponential 

Formula 127 

Heads,  Pressure  Equivalent  to, 

Table 118 

j of  water  different,  for  Pressure, 

Table 118 

Water,  Table  for  Calculating 

Horsepower  of, 154 

Heat  of  Water,  Specific,  Table 119 

j High  Pressure  Flexible  Coupling, ....  38 

j Horse-Power  of  Running  Stream  152, 153 

i Hydraulically  Operated  Gates 161 

| Hydraulic  Grade-Line 130 

Hydraulics — Water 116 

I 

j Ice  and  Snow,  weights  of, 

Inch,  Miner’s 

Inspection  of  Materials 

Installation  of  Large  Steel  Pipes 

Intakes . 

Iron  and  Steel,  Corrosion  of . . . 

Insulation  Joints 

Insulating  Wrappings 


J 

Joint,  Butt,  Strap 37 

Butt,  Double  Riveted,  Table.  . . 59 

Butt,  Triple  Riveted  Strength 

of  Table 60 

Butt,  Quadruple  Riveted, 

Strength  of,  Table 61 

East  Jersey  Expansion, 39 

Flange 37 

Flexible  Submarine 41 

Riveted  Taper 36 


Joint,  Submarine 40 

Insulation 80 

Leaded,  Leakage  of 87 

Lap,  Double  Riveted,  Table. ...  57 

Lap  Girth  Single  Riveted,  Table . 56 

Lap,  Single  Riveted 56 

Lap,  Triple  Riveted,  Table 58 

K 

Kutter’s  Formula 125 


L 

Lap  Girth  Joints,  Single  Riveted, 


Table 56 

Lap  Joints,  Double  Riveted,  Table.  . . 57 

Single  Riveted 56 

Triple  Riveted,  Table 58 

Leaded  Joints,  Leakage  of, 87 

Leakage 165 

Leakage  of  Leaded  Joints 87 

Length  Corrections,  Table 198 

Lengths  of  Circular  Arcs,  Table 197 

Lock-Bar  Pipe,  Assembling 19 

Crimping  and  Rolling  of, 19 

Fabricating  of, 17 

Planing  and  Upsetting 17 

Safe  working  Pressure,  Table.  . .50,  52 

Strength  of, 68 

Testing 19 

Truing,  Punching  and  Beveling.  17 

Weight  of,  Table 30 

Long  Pipe  Line  Formulas 131 

M 

Manholes 161 , 165  : 

Manholes,  Standard 42 

Masonry  Covers 167 

Materials,  Inspection  of 15 

Specification 13 

Mean  Velocity  of  Flow 124 

Measurement  by  Venturi  Tubes 140 

of  Flowing  Water 138 

Miner’s  Inch,  Table 143 

Measuring  Box,  Miner’s  Inch 143 

Meter,  Venturi, 139, 140 


118 

. ..141,142 

15 

. . . 169-173 

159 

78 

80 

82,83 


214 


GROSS  INDEX  Continued 


Meterage  and  Water  Consumption  in 


Larger  Cities,  Table 179,180 

Metric  Conversion,  Table 207 

Miner’s  Inch 141,  142 

Measuring  Box 143 

Measurements,  Table 143 

Motors,  Current 153 

Multipliers  for  Flat-topped  Weirs.  . . 151 

for  Triangular  Weirs 151 

N 

Notes  on  Weights 25 

O 

Obstructions  in  Pipe 137 

Organisms 166 

Overflows 175 

P 

Permissible  Variations  in  weight  of 

materials 15 

Physical  Tests  and  Pressure 69-71 

Physical  and  Chemical  Properties  of 

materials 13 

Piezometer 138 

Pipe,  Air  Bound 130 

and  Cylinders,  Contents  of 156 

Cast-Iron,  Failure  of 

87, 88,  89,  90,  91,  92,  93,  94,  96 

Coating  of 21 

Contraction  in 137 

Curvature  in 136 

Destruction  of  a 79,  80 

Electrolysis  in  Cast-Iron 79 

Exponential  Formula  for 134,  135 

Expansions  in 136 

Line  Formulas,  Long 131 

Large  Steel,  Installation  of . . . 169-173 
Lock-Bar,  Weight  of,  Table ....  30 

Maximum  and  mean  Velocities 

in 139 

Obstructions  in 137 

Riveted 55 

Riveted,  Weight  of,  Table 31 

Roughness  in 136 

Steel  Lines,  Manufactured  by 
East  Jersey  Pipe  Company.  .112,  113 
Steel 55 


Pipe,  Steel  Bends  in 68 

Steel,  Electrolysis  of 80 

Steel,  Cost  of, 86 

Transportation  of 169 

Testing 168 

Thickness  of  Steel 54,  55 

Twin  Lines 165 

Valves  in 137 

Weight  of  Steel 55 

Pitot  Tube 138,  139 

Plates,  Steel,  Weights  of,  Table . . . 202-204 

Power  of  Water  Fall 152 

Water 152 

Pressure  and  Physical  Tests 69-71 

Pressure  for  Domestic  Service.  .....  166 

for  Different  Heads  of  Water, 

Table ns 

for  Fire  Service 166 

Heads  equivalent  to,  Table 118 

Water 117, 118 

Water  Due  to  its  Weight 117 

Protection,  Fire 183, 184 


Q 

Quadruple  Riveted  Butt  Joints, 

Strength  of,  Table 61 

Quantity  of  Water  Discharged 121 


R 

Reducers,  Riveted  Steel  Plate 48 

Reduction  of  Slope  Measurements, 

Tables 185-190 

Relative  Corrosion  of  Wrought  Iron 

and  Steel 77,  78 

Reservoirs  and  Standpipes 167 

Distributing 167 

Riveted  Butt  Joints,  Double,  Table . . 59 

Triple  Strength  of,  Table 60 

Riveted  Lap  Joints,  Double,  Table  . . 57 

Single 56 

Riveted  Lap  Girth  Joints,  Single, 

Table 56 

Riveted  Lap  Joints  Triple,  Table ....  58 

Riveted  Pipe 55 

Safe  Working  Pressure,  Table.  . .51,  53 
Weight  of,  Table. . 31 


215 


CROSS  INDEX  Continued 


Riveted  Steel  Plate  Reducers 48 

Riveted  Taper  Joint 36 

Riveting  Pipe 171,172 

Rivets,  Cone-Head  Boiler,  Table.  . . . 206 

in  Circular  Seams,  Table 63 

Shearing  and  Bearing  Value  of, 

Table 63,64 

Rolling  and  Crimping  of  Lock-Bar 

Pipe 19 

Roughness  in  Pipe 136 


S 

Saddles  Standard  Socket,  Table 45 

Straight,  Table 43 

Sand  Cutting 165 

Safe  Working  Pressure  for  Lock-Bar 

Pipe,  Table.... 50,52 

for  Riveted  Pipe,  Table 51,  53 

Sharp-Edged  Wier 142,  143 

Shearing  and  Bearing  Value  of  Rivets, 

Table 63,64 

Sheared  Plates,  Permissible  Varia- 
tions in,  when  ordered  to 

Thickness 26 

Sheared  Plates,  Permissible  Varia- 
tions in  Weight  of,  when 

ordered  to  weight 27 

Single  Riveted  Lap  Girth  Joints, 


Table 56 

Single  Riveted  Lap  Joints 56 

Slope  Reduction  Tables 185-190 

Sluice  Gates 164 

Smith,  Hamilton  Formula 144 

Snow  and  Ice,  Weights  of 118 

Socket  Saddles,  Standard,  Table.  ...  45 

Source  of  Water  Supply 159 

Specific  Heat  of  Water,  Table 119 

Specification  of  materials 13 

Specifications  for  coating 17 

Specimens  for  Testing 15 

Standpipes  and  Reservoirs 167 

Standpipes,  Steel  Data  for 174, 175 

Stearns  and  Fteley  Formula 144 

Steel  Angles,  Weights  of,  Table 205 

Steel  and  Iron,  Corrosion  of 78 

Steel  and  Wrought  Iron  Pipe  Coat- 

tings,  Table 84 


Steel  and  Wrought  Iron,  Relative 


Corrosion  of, 77,  78 

Steel  Pipe 55 

Bends,  in 68 

Carrying  Capacity 73 

Data,  Table 65 

Electrolysis  of 80 

Lines  Manufactured  by  East 
Jersey  Pipe  Co  112,113 

Thickness  of 54,  55 

Steel  Plate  Reducers,  Riveted 48 

Weight  of 55 

Steel  Plates,  Weights  of,  Table ....  202-204 
Steel  Riveted  Pipes,  Values  of  “C”  in 

Chezy  Formula  132 

Steel  Vs.  Cast-Iron  Pipe 75-77 

Steel  Pipes,  Cost  of 86 

Straight  Saddles,  Table 43 

Strap  Joint,  Butt. 37 

Stream,  Fire,  Standard 184 

Running,  Horsepower  of 152,  153 

Strength  of  Lock-Bar  Pipe 68 


Triple  Riveted  Butt  Joints, 

Table 

Quadruple  Riveted  Butt  Joints  . . 

Stresses,  Temperature 

Supply,  Water,  Source  of 

Submarine  Joint 

Flexible 

Submerged  Crib 

Submerged  Weirs 

System,  Gridiron 


T 

Table,  Coatings  Cast-Iron  Pipe 

Cone-Head  Boiler  Rivets 

Data  for  Steel  Pipe 

Double  Riveted  Butt  Joints .... 

Contents  in  Barrels 

Contents  of  Pipes  and  Cylinders . 
Calculating  Power  of  Water 

Heads 

Circumferences  and  Areas  of 

Circles 192-195 

Coefficient  “C” 126 

Contents  of  Cylindrical  Vessels, 
Tanks  and  Cisterns 157 


61 

65 

159 

40 

41 
159 
145 
176 


84 

206 

65 

59 

158 

156 

154 


216 


GROSS  INDEX  Continued 


Table,  Conversion 1" 

Double  Riveted  Lap  Joints 57 

Gallons  and  Cubic  Feet 155 

Length  Corrections 198 

Lengths  of  Circular  Arcs 197 

Metric  Conversion 207 

Miner’s  Inch  Measurements  ....  143 

Pressure  for  Different  Heads  of 

Water 118 

Pressure  Heads  equivalent  to. . . . 118 

Rivets  in  Circular  Seams 62 

• Safe  Working  Pressure  for  Lock- 

Bar  Pipe 50-52 

Safe  Working  Pressure  for 

Riveted  Pipe 61 

Shearing  and  Bearing  Value  of 

Rivets 63,  64 

Single  Riveted  Lap  Girth  J oints  56 

Specific  Heat  of  Water 119 

Standard  Socket  Saddles 45 

Steel  and  Wrought  Iron  Pipe 

Coatings 84 

Straight  Saddles 43 

Strength  of  Triple  Riveted  Butt 


Joints 

Strength  of  Quadruple  Riveted 


Butt  Joints 61 

Triple  Riveted  Lap  Joints 58 

Weight  of  Lock-Bar  Pipe 30 

Weight  of  Riveted  Pipe 31 

Weights  of  Steel  Angles 205 

Weights  of  Steel  Plates  Table. . 202-205 
Weight  of  Water  per  Cubic  Foot 
at  Different  Temperatures  ....  116 

Weir  Formulas 150 

Tables,  Slope  Reduction 185-190 

Tanks,  Cisterns  and  Cylindrical 

Vessels,  Contents  of,  Table. .. . 57 

Elevated  Steel 176 

Taper  Joint,  Riveted 36 

Tees  and  Y’s 46 

Temperature  Stresses 65 

Test  Head,  Field 49 

Test  Specimens 15 

Testing  of  Lock-Bar  Pipe 19 

Pipe  Line 168 

Testimonial  Letters 97,  99, 101-110 

Tests,  Bending 13 


Tests,  Elongation  of  materials 13 

Physical  and  Pressure 69-71 

Theorem,  Bernoulli’s 153 

Thickness  of  Steel  Pipe 54,  55 

Transportation  of  Pipes 169 

Trautwine  Approximate  Formula . ..  . 124 

Trench,  Evacuation 169,  170 

Triangular  or  V-shaped  Weir.  144 

Triple  Riveted  Butt  Joints  Strength 

of,  Table 60 

Lap  Joints,  Table 58 

Tube,  Pitot 138, 139 

Tubes,  Venturi  Measurement  by  . . . . 140 

Tubercles  in  Cast-Iron  Pipe 165 

Twin  Pipe  Lines 165 


V 

V-shaped  or  Triangular  Weir 144 

Valves,  Air 164 

Gate 161 

Gate  and  Gates 177 

in  Pipe 137 

Values  of  “C”  in  Darcy’s  Formula. . . . 127 

Values  of  “C”  in  Chezy  Formula  for 

Cast-Iron  Pipes,  Table 131 

Values  of  “C”  in  Chezy  Formula  for 

for  Steel  Riveted  Pipes .......  132 

Values  of  Coefficient  “M”  Table 124 

Values  of  “F”  in  Fanning’s  Formula 

for  Cast-Iron  Pipes 132 

V ariations  in  Diameter 136 

Variations  Permissible,  in  Gauge  of 
Sheared  Plates  when  ordered, 

to  Thickness 26 

Variations  Permissible  in  Weight  of 
Sheared  Plates  when  ordered, 

to  weight 27 

Vaults,  Gate  Valve 162 

Velocities  and  Discharges  for  Pipe. . . 133 

Velocities  in  Pipes,  Maximum  and 

mean 139 

Venturi  Meter, 139,  140 

Venturi  Tubes,  Measurement  by 140 

W 

Water,  Collection  of 159 

Compressibility  of 119 


217 


CROSS  INDEX  Continued 


Water  Consumption 178-184 

Consumption  and  Meterage  in 

Larger  Cities,  Table 179, 180 

Discharged,  Quantity  of 121 

Factors 209 

Flow,  of,  in  Pipes 119,  120,  123 

Flowing,  Measurement  of 138 

Hammer 130 

Heads,  Table  for  Calculating 

Horsepower  of, 154 

Hydraulics . 116 

Power.  . 152 

Pressure 117,  118 

Pressure  of,  Due  to  its  Weight. . 117 

Supply  Conduits 165, 166 

Supply,  Source  of 159 

Volume  of 116 

Weight  of  per  cubic  foot  at  differ- 
ent temperatures,  Table 116 

Weight  of  Lock-Bar  Pipe,  Table 30 

Material,  Permissible  Variations  15 

Riveted  Pipe,  Table 31 

Steel  Pipe 55 

Water  per  Cubic  Foot  at  Differ- 
ent Temperatures,  Table 116 

General  Notes  on 25 


Weight  of  Snow  and  Ice 118 

Steel  Angles  . . 205 

Weights  of  Steel  Plates,  Table.  . . .202-204 

Weir,  Sharp-Edged 142 

Triangular  or  V-shaped 144 

Weirs 142, 144, 145,  147, 149, 150,  151 

Compound,  Multipliers  for 151 

Flat-topped  Multipliers  for 151 

Four  Formulas  for  Discharge 

of 144 

Formulas,  Table 149, 150 

Submerged 145 

Williams  & Hazen’s  Exponential 

Formula 127 

Working  Pressure  Safe,  for  Lock-Bar 

Pipe,  Table 50,52 

Safe  for  Riveted  Pipe,  Table 51,  53 

Wrappings,  Insulating 82,  83 

Wrought  Iron  and  Steel  Pipe  Coat- 
ings, Table 84 

Wrought  Iron  and  Steel,  Relative 

Corrosion  of 77,  78 


Y’s  and  Tees. 


46 


218 


Written  and  Designed  by 
Charles  Austin  Hirschberg , Inc, 
Advertising  Counselors 
New  York 


